补糖对急性运动大鼠心肌单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶激活的影响

目的通过测量大鼠急性运动后心肌单磷酸腺苷活化蛋白激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase,AMPK)活性和糖原含量的变化,探讨补糖对运动心肌AMPK激活的影响。方法大鼠进行急性耐力运动,并在运动前后不同时间补充不同剂量的补充葡萄糖,采用Western blot测定大鼠心肌AMPK活性的动态变化,采用蒽酮法测定心肌糖原含量。结果运动诱发大鼠心肌AMPK活性显著增高并在急性运动后1 h保持在较高水平,然而运动补糖大鼠心肌AMPK活性却无显著增高。运动或小剂量补糖都无法引起大鼠糖原含量的显著变化,只有大剂量补糖能使糖原含量在运动后24 h显著增高。结论 (1)急性运动可使大鼠心肌AMPK活性升高,补糖能显著抑制急性运动中和运动后AMPK的激活。(2)运动后大剂量补糖能有效提高运动后24 h心肌糖原含量。     

运动对高脂饲料喂养大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏组织脂联素-脂联素受体-腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶通路的影响

目的：探讨运动影响高脂喂养大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏组织在腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶（AMPK）通路上的可能机制。方法：40只雄性SD大鼠随机分为4组（n=1 0）：正常对照组（C组）：正常饮食不运动;正常饮食运动组（E组）：正常饮食同时进行10周游泳运动;高脂饮食对照组（H组）：高脂饲料喂养不运动;高脂饮食运动组（HE组）：高脂饲料喂养同时进行10周游泳运动。采用实时荧光定量PCR检测大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏脂联系受体1（AdipoR1）,Adipo R2 mRNA表达,Western blot检测大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶α（AMPKα）蛋白表达及磷酸化水平。结果：股四头肌AdipoR1 mRNA、肝脏AdipoR2 mRNA表达在H组显著低于C组（P<0.05）;HE组股四头肌和肝脏AMPKα（Thr172）磷酸化水平显著高于H组（P<0.05）,分别较H组高43.2%和51.1%。结论：高脂喂养导致大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏A dipoR1/R2 mRNA表达下调,运动提高了大鼠骨骼肌和肝脏AMPKα（Thr172）磷酸化水平。     

大负荷运动诱导大鼠骨骼肌损伤对其自噬超微结构及Beclin1和LC3-Ⅱ/Ⅰ的影响

目的:观察大负荷离心运动对大鼠骨骼肌自噬超微结构及自噬相关蛋白Beclin1和LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ的影响。方法:48只SD雄性大鼠适应性训练后随机分成对照组(C,n=8)和大负荷离心运动组(E,n=40)。E组于跑台进行90 min下坡跑,运动后0 h、12 h、24 h、48 h和72 h取比目鱼肌,透射电镜观察其自噬体超微结构变化; Western blot检测Beclin1和LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ蛋白表达;免疫荧光观测LC3的定位及含量变化。结果:E组比目鱼肌自噬体数量在运动后0 h、12 h和24 h均有增加,并伴LC3自噬荧光明显增强(P<0.01),同时运动后48 h自噬荧光仍有显著性升高(P<0.05); Beclin1和LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ在大负荷离心干预后表达升高(P<0.05),运动后12 h～24 h达到峰值(P<0.01),直至运动后72 h完全恢复。结论:大负荷离心运动可诱导骨骼肌自噬超微结构变化,自噬蛋白表达增强,以上可能是运动损伤的骨骼肌功能下降的原因之一。     

针刺对大鼠运动性骨骼肌损伤内质网应激的干预作用及机制

目的: 观察针刺对大鼠运动性骨骼肌损伤内质网功能酶SERCA、PDI、内质网应激标志蛋白GRP78和PERK通路的影响,探讨针刺防治运动性骨骼肌损伤的内质网途径作用机制。方法: 8周龄雄性SD大鼠随机分为空白对照组(C组,n=6)、单纯运动组(E组,n=30)、针刺对照组(A组,n=30)和运动针刺组(EA组,n=30)。其中,E组和EA组通过一次离心运动建立运动性骨骼肌损伤模型,EA组在运动后即刻于大鼠小腿跟腱上0.5 cm施以针刺干预,A组在同期施以针刺干预。各组根据运动和针刺干预后不同取材时间点分为0 h/12 h/24 h/48 h/72 h亚组(n=6),在对应时相取比目鱼肌进行指标测试。透射电镜观察肌纤维超微机构;ELISA法测定Ca²⁺-ATP酶(SERCA)和蛋白二硫键异构酶(PDI)含量;Western blot检测内质网应激标志蛋白GRP78及p-PERK、p-eIF2α表达。结果: 与C组比较,A组指标各时相均无显著差异(P＞0.05),E组肌纤维超微结构出现不同损伤,SERCA含量0 h至48 h均显著降低(P＜0.05),PDI含量0 h显著升高(P＜0.05),GRP78表达0 h至72 h均显著升高(P＜ 0.05),p-PERK表达0 h至24 h显著升高(P＜0.05), p-eIF2α表达与p-PERK一致;与E组对应时相比较,EA组肌纤维超微结构明显改善,SERCA含量48 h和72 h显著升高(P＜0.05),PDI含量0 h至72 h均显著升高(P＜0.05),GRP78表达0 h至72 h均显著降低(P＜0.05),p-PERK和p-eIF2α表达12 h和24 h显著降低(P＜0.05)。结论: 针刺可有效改善一次大负荷离心运动后导致的运动性骨骼肌损伤并缓解内质网应激,其机制可能与上调蛋白二硫键异构酶PDI以及抑制内质网应激PERK通路有关。     

大负荷运动诱导大鼠骨骼肌损伤对其自噬超微结构及Beclin1和LC3-II/I的影响*

目的: 观察大负荷离心运动对大鼠骨骼肌自噬超微结构及自噬相关蛋白Beclin1和LC3II/I的影响。方法: 48只SD雄性大鼠适应性训练后随机分成对照组(C,n=8)和大负荷离心运动组(E,n=40)。E组于跑台进行90 min下坡跑,运动后0 h、12 h、24 h、48 h和72 h取比目鱼肌,透射电镜观察其自噬体超微结构变化;Western blot检测Beclin1和LC3II/I蛋白表达;免疫荧光观测LC3的定位及含量变化。结果: E组比目鱼肌自噬体数量在运动后0 h、12 h和24 h均有增加,并伴LC3自噬荧光明显增强(P＜0.01),同时运动后48 h自噬荧光仍有显著性升高(P＜0.05);Beclin1和LC3II/I在大负荷离心干预后表达升高(P＜0.05),运动后12 h～24 h达到峰值(P＜0.01),直至运动后72 h完全恢复。结论: 大负荷离心运动可诱导骨骼肌自噬超微结构变化,自噬蛋白表达增强,以上可能是运动损伤的骨骼肌功能下降的原因之一。     

运动时长和强度对大鼠骨骼肌线粒体自噬的影响及其机制

本文旨在探讨不同时长、不同强度运动对大鼠骨骼肌线粒体功能和自噬的影响及FUNDC1的作用。选取60只雄性SD大鼠随机分为2周、4周的安静对照组(Con组)、中等强度运动组(M-ex组,跑台运动16 m/min,1 h/d,6 d/week)和大强度运动组(Hi-ex组,跑台运动35 m/min,20 min/d,6 d/week),每组10只。干预结束后分离双侧比目鱼肌,石蜡切片制备透射电镜样本,用ELISA检测柠檬酸合成酶(citrate synthase, CS)的含量,用冰冻切片免疫荧光染色法观察微管相关蛋白1轻链3 (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3, LC3)/细胞色素c氧化酶IV亚型(cytochrome c oxidase IV, COX-IV)、FUNDC1/COX-IV及LC3/FUNDC1的共定位情况。提取骨骼肌线粒体,用Western blot检测过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ共激活因子-1α(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptorγco-activator-1α, PGC-1α)、COX-I、腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶α(AMP-activated protein kinaseα,AMPKα)、p-AMPKα、Unc-51样激酶1 (Unc-51 like kinase 1, ULK1)、FUNDC1、LC3、自噬选择性底物(p62)等自噬相关蛋白表达。结果显示,运动可上调线粒体功能,即PGC-1α、COX-I蛋白表达和CS含量,2周Hi-ex组和2周M-ex组之间无差异,而4周Hi-ex组显著低于4周M-ex组。在运动强度相同的情况下,4周运动组大鼠的骨骼肌线粒体自噬激活程度高于2周运动组;在运动时长相同的情况下,Hi-ex组的线粒体自噬激活程度高于M-ex组。2和4周运动干预均可提高LC3/COX-IV、COX-IV/FUNDC1、FUNDC1/LC3共定位。运动可提高LC3-II/LC3-I比值,下调p62蛋白表达水平,上调FUNDC1、ULK1蛋白表达水平和AMPKα磷酸化水平,4周Hi-ex组的这些蛋白表达变化幅度显著大于4周M-ex组。以上结果提示,运动可诱导骨骼肌线粒体自噬,自噬的激活程度与运动时间和强度有关,运动的诱导机制可能是通过AMPK-ULK1通路影响FUNDC1的表达。     

8周不同强度运动对大鼠股四头肌HSP70和VEGF的影响

目的:研究不同强度运动的应激条件下,大鼠股四头肌保护性蛋白热休克蛋白70(HSP70)和血管生长因子(VEGF)表达的情况,为运动健身和科学训练提供研究资料。方法:采用任昭君的运动方案模型、参照Bedford及孙晓娟的运动负荷标准。分为四组(n=8):对照组(C组)、小强度运动组(LE组)、中等强度运动组(ME组)和大强度运动组(HE组),每周训练5 d共8周。取大鼠右肢股四头肌组织,采用免疫组织化学技术检测VEGF和HSP70的表达。结果:与对照组相比较,实验各组的股四头肌VEGF蛋白表达明显增加(P<0.01),分别增加了284.8%、63.02%和386.88%,而HSP70蛋白表达分别增加了11.57%、18.54%和3.75%;其中LE组和ME组的HSP70蛋白表达显著增高(P<0.05),HE组的HSP70蛋白表达未出现显著性变化(P<0.05),而ME组比LE组的HSP70蛋白表达增加明显(P<0.05),均高于HE组的HSP70蛋白表达。结论:中低强度运动诱导股四头肌HSP70合成表达,相应的VEGF表达增加;8周小强度有氧递增性运动对大鼠的机体影响非常显著。     

雪莲果汁对高脂模型大鼠的降脂作用及其机制初步探讨

观察雪莲果对高脂高糖致高脂大鼠模型的降脂作用,并对其影响机制进行初步探讨。取SD雄性大鼠喂养高脂高糖饲料建立高脂模型成功后,将高脂模型大鼠随机分为阴性对照组,阳性对照组,雪莲果高、中、低剂量组。各组动物按各药物和剂量灌胃给药至第16周后测定血清血脂水平及肝脏AMPK和ACC在基因和蛋白表达水平。与阴性对照相比,高、中剂量组TG、TC及LDL-C含量降低,HDL-C含量升高;AMPK的基因和蛋白表达水平高于阴性对照组;ACC的基因和蛋白表达水平低于阴性组;低剂量组与阴性对照比无明显差异;一定剂量的雪莲果汁能上调大鼠肝脏组织中AMPK m RNA和蛋白质表达,下调ACC m RNA和蛋白质表达,从而抑制脂肪酸合成,同时加速脂肪酸氧化,达到降脂作用。     

低氧运动对Nrf2基因敲除大鼠运动能力和氧化应激的影响

Nrf2可调节多种抗氧化酶的表达,Nrf2的缺失可能影响机体的运动能力,而低氧可提高机体的抗氧化能力并改善运动能力。为了考察低氧运动对Nrf2基因敲除大鼠运动能力和氧化应激的影响,本研究分别在常氧和低氧环境(12%氧浓度)中对野生型大鼠和Nrf2敲除大鼠进行4周的跑台运动。研究显示,低氧运动可提高野生型大鼠的跑台运动力竭时间,Nrf2敲除可缩短大鼠的力竭时间;低氧运动可上调大鼠的Nrf2 m RNA表达量;Nrf2敲除明显抑制HIF-1α蛋白表达,而低氧运动可上调野生型和Nrf2敲除大鼠的HIF-1α蛋白表达;Nrf2敲除大鼠的骨骼肌ROS水平明显升高,并且低氧均可降低野生型和Nrf2敲除大鼠骨骼肌ROS水平。低氧运动可上调Nrf2敲除大鼠的CAT和GSH-PX蛋白表达。苏木精和伊红(HE)染色显示,Nrf2敲除大鼠在力竭跑台运动完成后出现更严重的骨骼肌病理改变,而低氧运动可减轻骨骼肌损伤。本研究认为,Nrf2敲除导致了大鼠骨骼肌中抗氧化酶的抑制及ROS的过量累积,从而造成了骨骼肌损伤并降低了运动能力。此外,低氧可通过上调Nrf2的表达,进而激活HIF-1α及抗氧化酶活性,从而提高运动能力,并防止骨骼肌损伤。     

离心运动对大鼠骨骼肌细胞凋亡和增殖的影响

目的:探讨离心运动对骨骼肌细胞凋亡和增殖的时序性影响。方法:50只8周龄SD大鼠随机分为对照组(C)和运动组(B1,B2,B3,B4)(n=10),运动组进行重复3 d的力竭性离心运动,TUNNEL法检测大鼠肱三头肌内侧头不同恢复时相细胞凋亡情况和免疫组化检测其细胞增殖核抗原(PCNA)的表达。结果:①骨骼肌细胞凋亡出现时序性变化,并与运动性骨骼肌微损伤出现了一致性,运动组凋亡指数明显高于对照组(P<0.05),运动后即刻凋亡指数升高,运动后24 h达到峰值,运动后48 h凋亡指数有所下降。②骨骼肌细胞增殖出现时序性,运动组增殖指数明显高于对照组(P<0.05),运动后即刻增殖指数较高,运动后3 h增殖指数有所下降,运动后24 h增殖指数达到峰值,到运动后48 h下降,但还未恢复到对照组。并与细胞凋亡呈中度相关(P<0.05)。结论:①细胞凋亡是诱发骨骼肌再发性损伤的一个因素。②细胞凋亡可能是骨骼肌细胞再生的一个启动因素。     

刺五加胶囊对抑郁大鼠海马组织TH、TPH表达的影响

目的:探讨刺五加胶囊对抑郁大鼠海马组织TH、TPH表达的影响。方法:SD大鼠随机分为正常组、模型组和刺五加胶囊低、中、高剂量组,21d慢性轻度不可预见性应激刺激法(chronic unpredictable mild stress,CUMS)制备大鼠抑郁模型,对照组给予生理盐水1ml灌胃,刺五加胶囊低、中、高剂量组分别给予刺五加胶囊(300mg/kg,600mg/kg,1200mg/kg)灌胃,取大鼠海马组织。分别采用realtime RT-PCR和western blot方法观察大鼠海马组织酪氨酸羟化酶(TH)、色氨酸羟化酶(TPH)的表达。结果:刺五加胶囊低剂量组能明显升高海马组织中TH、TPH mRNA和蛋白的表达(P<0.05),中、高剂量组能显著升高海马组织中TH、TPH mRNA和蛋白的表达(P<0.01)。结论:刺五加胶囊能升高抑郁大鼠海马组织中TH、TPH的表达。     

Effect of exhaustive ultra-endurance exercise in muscular glycogen and both Alpha1 and Alpha2 Ampk protein expression in trained rats

Glycogen is the main store of readily energy in skeletal muscle and plays a key role in muscle function, demonstrated by the inability to sustain prolonged high-intensity exercise upon depletion of these glycogen stores. With prolonged exercise, glycogen depletion occurs and 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a potent regulator of muscle metabolism and gene expression, is activated promoting molecular signalling that increases glucose uptake by muscular skeletal cells. The aim of this study was primarily to determine the effect of ultra-endurance exercise on muscle glycogen reserves and secondly to verify the influence of this type of exercise on AMPK protein expression. Twenty-four male Wistar rats, 60 days old, were divided into four experimental groups: sedentary, sedentary exhausted (SE), endurance trained (T) and endurance trained exhausted (TE). The animals ran for 10 to 90 min/day, 5 days/week, for 12 weeks to attain trained status. Rats were killed immediately after the exhaustion protocol, which consisted of running on a treadmill (at approximately 60 % V _max until exhaustion). Optical density of periodic acid-Schiff was detected and glycogen depletion observed predominantly in type I muscle fibres of the TE group and in both type I and II muscle fibres in the SE group. Plasma glucose decreased only in the TE group. Hepatic glycogen was increased in T group and significantly depleted in TE group. AMPK protein expression was significantly elevated in TE and T groups. In conclusion, acute exhaustive ultra-endurance exercise promoted muscle glycogen depletion. It seems that total AMPK protein and gene expression is more influenced by status training.     

Effects of continuous low-carbohydrate diet after long-term exercise on GLUT-4 protein content in rat skeletal muscle.

Stimulation of AMPK and decreased glycogen levels in skeletal muscle have a deep involvement in enhanced insulin action and GLUT-4 protein content after exercise training. The present study examined the chronic effects of a continuous low-carbohydrate diet after long-term exercise on GLUT-4 protein content, glycogen content, AMPK, and insulin signaling in skeletal muscle. Rats were divided randomly into four groups: normal chow diet sedentary (N-Sed), low carbohydrate diet sedentary (L-Sed), normal chow diet exercise (N-Ex), and low carbohydrate diet exercise (L-Ex) groups. Rats in the exercise groups (N-Ex and L-Ex) were exercised by swimming for 6 hours/day in two 3-hour bouts separated by 45 minutes of rest. The 10-day exercise training resulted in a significant increase in the GLUT-4 protein content (p<0.01). Additionally, the GLUT-4 protein content in L-Ex rats was increased by 29% above that in N-Ex rats (p<0.01). Finally, the glycogen content in skeletal muscle of L-Ex rats was decreased compared with that of N-Ex rats. Taken together, we suggest that the maintenance of glycogen depletion after exercise by continuous low carbohydrate diet results in the increment of the GLUT-4 protein content in skeletal muscle.     

Effect of acute activation of 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase on glycogen regulation in isolated rat skeletal muscle.

5'-AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has been implicated in glycogen metabolism in skeletal muscle. However, the physiological relevance of increased AMPK activity during exercise has not been fully clarified. This study was performed to determine the direct effects of acute AMPK activation on muscle glycogen regulation. For this purpose, we used an isolated rat muscle preparation and pharmacologically activated AMPK with 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-D-ribonucleoside (AICAR). Tetanic contraction in vitro markedly activated the alpha(1)- and alpha(2)-isoforms of AMPK, with a corresponding increase in the rate of 3-O-methylglucose uptake. Incubation with AICAR elicited similar enhancement of AMPK activity and 3-O-methylglucose uptake in rat epitrochlearis muscle. In contrast, whereas contraction stimulated glycogen synthase (GS), AICAR treatment decreased GS activity. Insulin-stimulated GS activity also decreased after AICAR treatment. Whereas contraction activated glycogen phosphorylase (GP), AICAR did not alter GP activity. The muscle glycogen content decreased in response to contraction but was unchanged by AICAR. Lactate release was markedly increased when muscles were stimulated with AICAR in buffer containing glucose, indicating that the glucose taken up into the muscle was catabolized via glycolysis. Our results suggest that AMPK does not mediate contraction-stimulated glycogen synthesis or glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle and also that acute AMPK activation leads to an increased glycolytic flux by antagonizing contraction-stimulated glycogen synthesis.     

Glycogen overload by postexercise insulin administration abolished the exercise-induced increase in GLUT4 protein

Summary To elucidate the role of muscle glycogen storage on regulation of GLUT4 protein expression and whole-body glucose tolerance, muscle glycogen level was manipulated by exercise and insulin administration. Sixty Sprague-Dawley rats were evenly separated into three groups: control (CON), immediately after exercise (EX0), and 16 h after exercise (EX16). Rats from each group were further divided into two groups: saline- and insulin-injected. The 2-day exercise protocol consisted of 2 bouts of 3-h swimming with 45-min rest for each day, which effectively depleted glycogen in both red gastrocnemius (RG) and plantaris muscles. EX0 rats were sacrificed immediately after the last bout of exercise on second day. CON and EX16 rats were intubated with 1 g/kg glucose solution following exercise and recovery for 16 h before muscle tissue collection. Insulin (0.5 μU/kg) or saline was injected daily at the time when glucose was intubated. Insulin injection elevated muscle glycogen levels substantially in both muscles above saline-injected group at CON and EX16. With previous day insulin injection, EX0 preserved greater amount of postexercise glycogen above their saline-injected control. In the saline-injected rats, EX16 significantly increased GLUT4 protein level above CON, concurrent with muscle glycogen supercompensation. Insulin injection for EX16 rats significantly enhanced muscle glycogen level above their saline-injected control, but the increases in muscle GLUT4 protein and whole-body glucose tolerance were attenuated. In conclusion, the new finding of the study was that glycogen overload by postexercise insulin administration significantly abolished the exercise-induced increases in GLUT4 protein and glucose tolerance.     

Interactive effect of exercise training and growth hormone administration on glucose tolerance and muscle GLUT4 protein expression in rats

The insulin-resistance effect of growth hormone (GH) administration has been frequently reported. The present study investigated the effect of GH administration on glucose tolerance and muscle GLUT4 protein expression in exercise-trained and untrained rats. Forty-eight rats were weight-matched and assigned to the following 4 groups: control, GH, exercise training, and exercise training + GH groups. After 2 weeks of GH injections (65 µg/kg/day) and exercise training, the glucose tolerance and insulin response were measured in these rats. The GLUT4 protein level, glycogen storage, and citrate synthase activity were determined in red gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles. Daily GH administration elevated the curves of the oral glucose tolerance test and insulin response compared with those of saline-injected control rats. Furthermore, exercise training completely eliminated this GH-induced insulin resistance as determined 18 h after the last bout of exercise training. Additionally, exercise training significantly increased muscle glycogen storage and GLUT4 protein levels. GH administration did not affect the GLUT4 protein and glycogen storage increases induced by exercise training, but the citrate synthase activity in the plantaris muscle was further elevated by GH administration to a level above that induced by training. In conclusion, this is the first study that demonstrates that regular exercise training prevents GH-induced insulin-resistance side effect in rats.     

刺五加胶囊对抑郁大鼠海马组织TH、TPH表达的影响

目的：探讨刺五加胶囊对抑郁大鼠海马组织TH、TPH表达的影响。方法：SD大鼠随机分为正常组、模型组和刺五加胶囊低、中、高剂量组,21d慢性轻度不可预见性应激刺激法（chronicunpredictablemildstress,CUMS）制备大鼠抑郁模型,对照组给予生理盐水1ml灌胃,刺五加胶囊低、中、高剂量组分别给予刺五加胶囊（300mg／kg,600mg／kg,1200mg／kg）灌胃,取大鼠海马组织。分别采用realtimeRT-PCR和westernblot方法观察大鼠海马组织酪氨酸羟化酶（TH）、色氨酸羟化酶（TPH）的表达。结果：刺五加胶囊低剂量组能明显升高海马组织中TH、TPHmRNA和蛋白的表达（P〈0．05）,中、高剂量组能显著升高海马组织中TH、TPHmRNA和蛋白的表达（P〈0．01）。结论：刺五加胶囊能升高抑郁大鼠海马组织中TH、TPH的表达。     

Effects of acute hypobaric hypoxia and exhaustive exercise on AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in rat skeletal muscle

The present study was aimed to explore the changes of phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (pAMPK) level in skeletal muscle after exposure to acute hypobaric hypoxia and exhaustive exercise. Thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into sea level and high altitude groups. The rats in high altitude group were submitted to simulated 5 000 m of high altitude in a hypobaric chamber for 24 h, and sea level group was maintained at normal conditions. All the rats were subjected to exhaustive swimming exercise. The exhaustion time was recorded. Before and after the exercise, blood lactate and glycogen content in skeletal muscle were determined; AMPK and pAMPK levels in skeletal muscle were detected by Western blot. The results showed that the exhaustion time was significantly decreased after exposure to high altitude. At the moment of exhaustion, high altitude group had lower blood lactate concentration and higher surplus glycogen content in gastrocnemius compared with sea level group. Exhaustive exercise significantly increased the pAMPK/AMPK ratio in rat skeletal muscles from both sea level and high altitude groups. However, high altitude group showed lower pAMPK/AMPK ratio after exhaustion compared to sea level group. These results suggest that, after exposure to acute hypobaric hypoxia, the decrement in exercise capacity may not be due to running out of glycogen, accumulation of lactate or disturbance in energy status in skeletal muscle.     

Chronic activation of 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase increases GLUT-4, hexokinase, and glycogen in muscle.

This study was designed to determine whether chronic chemical activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) would increase glucose transporter GLUT-4 and hexokinase in muscles similarly to periodic elevation of AMPK that accompanies endurance exercise training. The adenosine analog, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside (AICAR), has previously been shown to be taken up by cells and phosphorylated to form a compound (5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide) that mimics the effect of AMP on AMPK. A single injection of AICAR resulted in a marked increase in AMPK in epitrochlearis and gastrocnemius/plantaris muscles 60 min later. When rats were injected with AICAR (1 mg/g body wt) for 5 days in succession and were killed 1 day after the last injection, GLUT-4 was increased by 100% in epitrochlearis muscle and by 60% in gastrocnemius muscle in response to AICAR. Hexokinase was also increased approximately 2. 5-fold in the gastrocnemius/plantaris. Gastrocnemius glycogen content was twofold higher in AICAR-treated rats than in controls. Chronic chemical activation of AMPK, therefore, results in increases in GLUT-4 protein, hexokinase activity, and glycogen, similarly to those induced by endurance training.     

Effect of exercise intensity and hypoxia on skeletal muscle AMPK signaling and substrate metabolism in humans

We compared in human skeletal muscle the effect of absolute vs. relative exercise intensity on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling and substrate metabolism under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Eight untrained males cycled for 30 min under hypoxic conditions (11.5% O(2), 111 +/- 12 W, 72 +/- 3% hypoxia Vo(2 peak); 72% Hypoxia) or under normoxic conditions (20.9% O(2)) matched to the same absolute (111 +/- 12 W, 51 +/- 1% normoxia Vo(2 peak); 51% Normoxia) or relative (to Vo(2 peak)) intensity (171 +/- 18 W, 73 +/- 1% normoxia Vo(2 peak); 73% Normoxia). Increases (P < 0.05) in AMPK activity, AMPKalpha Thr(172) phosphorylation, ACCbeta Ser(221) phosphorylation, free AMP content, and glucose clearance were more influenced by the absolute than by the relative exercise intensity, being greatest in 73% Normoxia with no difference between 51% Normoxia and 72% Hypoxia. In contrast to this, increases in muscle glycogen use, muscle lactate content, and plasma catecholamine concentration were more influenced by the relative than by the absolute exercise intensity, being similar in 72% Hypoxia and 73% Normoxia, with both trials higher than in 51% Normoxia. In conclusion, increases in muscle AMPK signaling, free AMP content, and glucose disposal during exercise are largely determined by the absolute exercise intensity, whereas increases in plasma catecholamine levels, muscle glycogen use, and muscle lactate levels are more closely associated with the relative exercise intensity.