Kinetic properties of p53 phosphorylation by the human vaccinia-related kinase 1

The vaccinia-related kinase 1 (VRK1) protein is a nuclear Ser-Thr kinase that phosphorylates p53 in Thr18. We have determined the enzyme properties regarding its different substrates. VRK1 has a high affinity for ATP (K(m) 50 microM) and is thus saturated by the intracellular concentration of ATP in vivo. VRK1 uses preferentially magnesium, but is also functional with manganese and zinc. The VRK1 protein is autophosphorylated in multiple residues without effect on its activity. One autophosphorylated residue, T355, is within the VRK1 regulatory carboxy terminus. The kinase phosphorylates p53 with a K(m) of 1 microM and is well suited to respond to the variations of intracellular p53 concentration, which fluctuates as a response to different types of cellular stress.     

Mitotic histone H3 phosphorylation by vaccinia-related kinase 1 in mammalian cells

Mitotic chromatin condensation is essential for cell division in eukaryotes. Posttranslational modification of the N-terminal tail of histone proteins, particularly by phosphorylation by mitotic histone kinases, may facilitate this process. In mammals, aurora B is believed to be the mitotic histone H3 Ser10 kinase; however, it is not sufficient to phosphorylate H3 Ser10 with aurora B alone. We show that histone H3 is phosphorylated by vaccinia-related kinase 1 (VRK1). Direct phosphorylation of Thr3 and Ser10 in H3 by VRK1 both in vitro and in vivo was observed. Loss of VRK1 activity was associated with a marked decrease in H3 phosphorylation during mitosis. Phosphorylation of Ser10 by VRK1 is similar to that by aurora B. Moreover, expression and chromatin localization of VRK1 depended on the cell cycle phase. Overexpression of VRK1 resulted in a dramatic condensation of nuclei. Our findings collectively support a role of VRK1 as a novel mitotic histone H3 kinase in mammals.     

Correlation between p53 gene mutations and p53 protein accumulation evaluated by different methodologies

Mutations in the p53 gene are the most common genetic alterations in many tumour histotypes. Many of these mutations induce conformational changes resulting in p53 protein stabilisation and consequently an accumulation detectable with immunochemical methods. Available data on the correlation between p53 gene alterations and p53 overexpression widely vary. In this study we analysed the correlation between p53 gene alterations detected by DGGE, SSCP and sequencing and protein expression detected by flow cytometric and immunohistochemical approaches by using PAb 1801 antibody. The study was performed on 21 bladder tumours and 10 cell lines derived from different tumour histotypes as representative of different methodologic problems which can be met starting from different types of biological material. The best correlation (81%) was observed between p53 mutations and FCM results, using a double evaluation criterion for the latter which includes the percentage of positive cells and "delta values", evaluated as the difference between the mean values of Pab 1801 stained cells and isotypic control. The high correlation obtained between results from this FCM double criterion and p53 gene mutations is a good starting point for the analysis on large series of tumours and for a multiparameter FCM analysis including p53 protein levels.     

Backbone 1H, 13C and 15N resonance assignments of human vaccinia-related kinase 1 (VRK1)

Vaccinia-related kinase 1 (VRK1) is one of the mitotic kinases which play key roles in cell cycle control and chromatin modifications. To understand the biological role of the kinase and gain insights into its catalytic mechanism, we performed NMR assignments of catalytically active form of VRK1 with 361 amino acids residues. Here, we present the backbone NMR resonance assignments of the kinase.     

Sensitivity of the kinase activity of human vaccinia-related kinase proteins to toxic metals

The human vaccinia-related kinase (VRK) proteins VRK1 and VRK2 regulate different processes, such as the cell cycle, DNA damage response, and signaling by mitogen-activated protein kinases in response to growth factors or cellular stress. Alterations in expression levels of these Ser–Thr kinases are associated with cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. These functions suggest that they might also be targets of toxic metals, and thus contribute to the pathogenic effects associated with metal intoxication. VRK1 is inhibited by cadmium, copper, and mercury, and VRK2 is more sensitive to cadmium and much less sensitive to copper and mercury. Both kinases are insensitive to lead and cobalt. VRK1 is in general more sensitive than VRK2 in the low micromolar range. This inhibitory effect induced by these metals was detected in an autophosphorylation assay, as well as in phosphorylation assays using p53 and histone H3 as substrates. The accumulation of these three metals in cells can contribute, by inhibition of VRKs, to their toxic pathogenic effects, particularly their neurological manifestations. In this context copper has not generally been associated with any intoxication syndrome, except Wilson’s syndrome, but it might be implicated in some alterations with which it has not yet been associated.     

Stabilization of the MDM2 oncoprotein by mutant p53

MDM2 is a short-lived protein that regulates p53 degradation. We report here that transient coexpression of MDM2 and several p53 hotspot mutants resulted in stabilization and increased expression of MDM2. Ectopic expression of the mutant p53(175H) allele by recombinant adenovirus infection or stable transfection also stabilized endogenous MDM2 in p53-null cells. A panel of human tumor cell lines expressing different endogenous mutant p53 alleles also contained stabilized nuclear MDM2 at elevated levels when compared with p53-null cells. MDM2 was present in complexes with mutant p53 in tumor cells, and stabilization of MDM2 required direct binding to mutant p53. These results reveal a novel property of mutant p53 and a unique feature of tumors with p53 missense mutations. Accumulation of stable MDM2 may contribute to tumorigenesis through its p53-independent transforming functions.     

p53 independent G(1) arrest induced by DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine

Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), which catalyzes polyamine biosynthesis, plays an essential role in cell growth. DL-alpha-Difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), a synthetic inhibitor of ODC, inhibits cell growth. However, the exact mechanism by which polyamine depletion by DFMO results in growth inhibition remains to be elucidated. We clarified the mechanisms by which DFMO inhibits human gastric cancer cell (MKN45) growth. DFMO induced MKN45 cell G(1) phase arrest after 48 h, and the percentage of G(1) arrest cells continued to increase until 72 h. Expression of p21 and phosphorylation of Stat1 were significantly induced by DFMO at 24 h. Luciferase assay and gel shift assay showed specific binding of Stat1 to the p21 promoter, and promoter activity was activated at 24 h. In dominant negative p53 expressing cells, DFMO significantly induced p21 expression, arrested cells at G(1) phase, and suppressed cell growth effectively. These results suggest that DFMO induced MKN45 cell arrest at G(1) phase in a p53 independent manner, and Stat1 is, at least in part, involved in G(1) arrest.     

Proapoptotic p53-interacting protein 53BP2 is induced by UV irradiation but suppressed by p53

p53 is an important mediator of the cellular stress response with roles in cell cycle control, DNA repair, and apoptosis. 53BP2, a p53-interacting protein, enhances p53 transactivation, impedes cell cycle progression, and promotes apoptosis through unknown mechanisms. We now demonstrate that endogenous 53BP2 levels increase following UV irradiation induced DNA damage in a p53-independent manner. In contrast, we found that the presence of a wild-type (but not mutant) p53 gene suppressed 53BP2 steady-state levels in cell lines with defined p53 genotypes. Likewise, expression of a tetracycline-regulated wild-type p53 cDNA in p53-null fibroblasts caused a reduction in 53BP2 protein levels. However, 53BP2 levels were not reduced if the tetracycline-regulated p53 cDNA was expressed after UV damage in these cells. This suggests that UV damage activates cellular factors that can relieve the p53-mediated suppression of 53BP2 protein. To address the physiologic significance of 53BP2 induction, we utilized stable cell lines with a ponasterone A-regulated 53BP2 cDNA. Conditional expression of 53BP2 cDNA lowered the apoptotic threshold and decreased clonogenic survival following UV irradiation. Conversely, attenuation of endogenous 53BP2 induction with an antisense oligonucleotide resulted in enhanced clonogenic survival following UV irradiation. These results demonstrate that 53BP2 is a DNA damage-inducible protein that promotes DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, 53BP2 expression is highly regulated and involves both p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms. Our data provide new insight into 53BP2 function and open new avenues for investigation into the cellular response to genotoxic stress.