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1.
Kim Hill 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》2002,13(1):105-128
This paper presents quantitative data on altruistic cooperation during food acquisition by Ache foragers. Cooperative activities
are defined as those that entail a cost of time and energy to the donor but primarily lead to an increase in the foraging
success of the recipient. Data show that Ache men and women spend about 10% of all foraging time engaged in altruistic cooperation
on average, and that on some days they may spend more than 50% of their foraging time in such activities. The most time-consuming
cooperative activity for both sexes is helping during the pursuit of game animals, a pattern that is probably linked to the
widespread sharing of game by Ache foragers. Cooperative food acquisition and subsequent food redistribution in hunter-gatherer
societies are critical behaviors that probably helped shape universal, evolved, cooperative tendencies that are well illustrated
in modern experimental economics.
This paper was originally presented at a Max Planck symposium on cooperation in Leipzig in June 1999. This work was partially
funded by a grant from the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation and NSF grant BNS 9727656.
Kim Hill is a professor of anthropology in the Human Evolutionary Ecology (HEE) program at the University of New Mexico. His
primary research interests include hunter-gatherer behavioral ecology, life history theory, food acquisition strategies, food
sharing, cooperation, and biodiversity conservation in lowland South America. He has done fieldwork with Nahautl, Ache, Guarani,
Hiwi, Mashco Piro, Matsiguenga, and Yora indigenous peoples of Central and South America. 相似文献
2.
This paper lays the groundwork for a theory of time allocation across the life course, based on the idea that strength and
skill vary as a function of age, and that return rates for different activities vary as a function of the combination of strength
and skills involved in performing those tasks. We apply the model to traditional human subsistence patterns. The model predicts
that young children engage most heavily in low-strength/low-skill activities, middle-aged adults in high-strength/high-skill
activities, and older adults in low-strength/high-skill activities. Tests among Machiguenga and Piro forager-horticulturalists
of southeastern Peru show that males and females focus on low-strength/low-skill tasks early in life (domestic tasks and several
forms of fishing), switch to higher-strength/higher-skill activities in their twenties and thirties (hunting, fishing, and
gardening for males; fishing and gardening for females), and shift focus to high-skill activities late in life (manufacture/repair,
food processing).
Michael Gurven is an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of California-Santa Barbara. He received his Ph.D.
from the University of New Mexico in 2000. He has conducted fieldwork in Paraguay and Bolivia with Ache and Tsimane forager-horticulturalists.
His research interests include intragroup cooperation and problems of collective action, and the application of life history
theory to explaining human longevity, cognitive development, delayed maturation, and sociality. Since 2002, Gurven and Kaplan
have co-directed the Tsimane Health and Life History Initiative, a five-year project to develop theory and test implications
of different models of human life history evolution.
Hillard Kaplan is a professor of anthropology at University of New Mexico. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Utah
in 1983. He has conducted fieldwork in Paraguay, Brazil, Botswana, and Bolivia. His research interests include evolutionary
perspectives on life course development and senescence, and brain evolution. He has launched theoretical and empirical investigations
into each of these areas, uniting evolutionary and economic approaches. He has applied human capital theory toward explaining
human life history evolution, and the proximate physiological and psychological mechanisms governing fertility and parental
investment in both traditional, high-fertility, subsistence economies and modern, low-fertility, industrial societies. 相似文献
3.
Anecdotal evidence from many hunter-gatherer societies suggests that successful hunters experience higher prestige and greater
reproductive success. Detailed quantitative data on these patterns are now available for five widely dispersed cases (Ache,
Hadza, !Kung, Lamalera, and Meriam) and indicate that better hunters exhibit higher age-corrected reproductive success than
other men in their social group. Leading explanations to account for this pattern are: (1) direct provisioning of hunters’
wives and offspring, (2) dyadic reciprocity, (3) indirect reciprocity, (4) costly signaling, and (5) phenotypic correlation.
I examine the qualitative and quantitative evidence bearing on these explanations and conclude that although none can be definitively
rejected, extensive and apparently unconditional sharing of large game somewhat weakens the first three explanations. The
costly signaling explanation has support in some cases, although the exact nature of the benefits gained from mating or allying
with or deferring to better hunters needs further study.
For comments on earlier drafts, I thank Monique Borgerhoff Mulder, Mike Gurven, Ray Hames, Kristen Hawkes, Kim Hill, Robert
Kelly, Frank Marlowe, John Patton, and Polly Wiessner. Rebecca Bliege Bird and Douglas W. Bird invited me to collaborate in
the Meriam research and (along with Del Passi of Mer) collected the data on Meriam demography. Geoff Kushnick and Matt Wimmer
ably assisted with coding and statistical analysis of these data.
Eric Alden Smith (PhD 1980, Cornell University) is a professor of anthropology at the University of Washington, Seattle. His
research interests include the links between production and reproduction, the ecology and evolution of collective action,
and politics in small-scale societies. He has conducted fieldwork among Inuit on Hudson Bay, Meriam in Torres Strait, and
Mardu Aborigines in the Australian Western Desert. 相似文献
4.
A. Magdalena Hurtado Carol A. Lambourne Kim R. Hill Karen Kessler 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》2006,17(2):129-154
The socioeconomic and ethnic characteristics of parents are some of the most important correlates of adverse health outcomes
in childhood. However, the relationships between ethnic, economic, and behavioral factors and the health outcomes responsible
for this pervasive finding have not been specified in child health epidemiology. The general objective of this paper is to
propose a theoretical approach to the study of maternal behaviors and child health in diverse ethnic and socioeconomic environments.
The specific aims are: (a) to describe a causal pathway between the utility that women obtain through work outside the home and through child care
and disease hazard rates in childhood using an optimization model; (b) to specify the influence of ethnic and socioeconomic factors on model constraints; (c) to use the model as a tool to learn about how different combinations of maternal wage labor and child care time might influence
child health outcomes in diverse social contexts; (d) to identify parameters that will require measurement in future research; (e) to discuss research strategies that will enable us to obtain these measurements; and (f) to discuss the implications of the model for biostatistical modeling and public health intervention. Optimization models
are powerful heuristic tools for understanding how ethnic, environmental, family, and personal characteristics can place important
constraints on both the quality and quantity of care that women can provide to their children. They provide a quantitative
appreciation for the difficult trade-offs that most women face between working in order to purchase basic goods that children
cannot do without (e.g., food, clothing, shelter, health insurance), and increasing offspring well-being through child care
(e.g., training in social skills, affection, protection from environmental hazards, help with homework).
The research was funded by a Faculty Scholars Award from the William T. Grant Foundation to A. Magdalena Hurtado.
A. Magdalena Hurtado, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico. Her research
interests include the origins of the sexual division of labor, epidemiology of indigenous peoples, disease susceptibility,
the development and intergenerational transmission of antigens and immune defense, immune function and allergic sensitization,
and trauma. She also works on public health interventions, biological capital and poverty, and land tenure and human rights
in native communities of South America.
Carol Lambourne, M.Sc., is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico. Her research
interests are evolutionary models of child and adolescent development, life history theory, family composition and investment
patterns, pubertal timing and psychosexual maturation, juvenile stress, and infanticide.
Kim Hill, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico. His research interests are modern
hunter-gatherers, including extensive fieldwork in lowland South America. Current topics of interest include human evolution,
economic strategies, life history theory, the evolution of cooperation, and the emergence of social norms enforced by punishment.
He is also involved in economic development, health and education projects with lowland South American native populations.
Karen Kessler received her M.S. in Anthropology from the University of New Mexico in 1996. Her research interests are the
application of mathematical modeling to the prevention of diabetes and other causes of morbidity and mortality in historical
populations. 相似文献
5.
A. Magdalena Hurtado Kim Hill Ines Hurtado Hillard Kaplan 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1992,3(3):185-216
Even though female food acquisition is an area of considerable interest in hunter-gatherer research, the ecological determinants
of women’s economic decisions in these populations are still poorly understood. The literature on female foraging behavior
indicates that there is considerable variation within and across foraging societies in the amount of time that women spend
foraging and in the amount and types of food that they acquire. It is possible that this heterogeneity reflects variation
in the trade-offs between time spent in food acquisition and child care activities that women face in different groups of
hunter-gatherers. In this paper we discuss the fitness trade-offs between food acquisition and child care that Hiwi and Ache
women foragers might face. Multiple regression analyses show that in both populations the daily food acquisition of a woman’s
spouse is negatively related to female foraging effort. In addition, nursing mothers spend less time foraging and acquire
less food than do nonnursing women. As the number of dependents that a woman has increases, however, women also increase foraging
time and the amount of food they acquire. Some interesting exceptions to these general trends are as follows: (a) differences in foraging effort between nursing and nonnursing women are less pronounced when fruits and roots are in season
than in other seasons of the year; (b) foraging return rates decrease for Ache women as their numbers of dependents increase; and (c) among Ache women, the positive effect of number of dependents on foraging behavior is less pronounced when fruits are in
season than at other times of the year. Lastly, in the Hiwi sample we found that postreproductive women work considerably
harder than women of reproductive age in the root season but not in other seasons of the year. We discuss how ecological variation
in constraints, the number of health insults to children that Hiwi and Ache mothers can avoid, and the fitness benefits they
can gain from spending time in food acquisition and child care might account for differences and similarities in the foraging
behaviors of subgroups of Hiwi and Ache mothers across different seasons of the year. Valid tests of the explanations we propose
will require considerable effort to measure the relationship between maternal food acquisition, child care, and adverse health
outcomes in offspring.
This paper is dedicated to Nutsiya, the hardest-working grandmother we ever observed
Kristen Hawkes contributed useful information on female foraging among the Hadza. The research was funded by the National
Science Foundation (BNS-8613215, BNS-538228, BNS-8309834, BNS-8121209) and the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation. The senior author
was supported by fellowships from the Fundacion Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho of Venezuela and the National Institute of Health
(Grant No. 1 RO1 HD16221-01A2).
A. Magdalena Hurtado, Kim Hill, and Hillard Kaplan collaborate in research on the evolutionary ecology of the division of
labor by sex. Ines Hurtado is Senior Research Scientist at the Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Venezuela.
She studies the immunology of parasite load and atopic illness in Hiwi foragers. 相似文献
6.
《Ethology and sociobiology》1991,12(1):29-54
It is widely assumed that among hunter-gatherers, men work to provision their families. However, men may have more to gain by giving food to a wide range of companions who treat them favorably in return. If so, and if some resources better serve this end, men's foraging behavior should vary accordingly. Aspects of this hypothesis are tested on observations of food acquisition and sharing among Ache foragers of Eastern Paraguay. Previous analysis showed that different Ache food types were differently shared. Resources shared most widely were game animals. Further analysis and additional data presented here suggest a causal association between the wide sharing of game and the fact that men hunt and women do not. Data show that men preferentially target resources in both hunting and gathering which are more widely shared, resources more likely to be consumed outside their own nuclear families. These results have implications for 1) the identification of male reproductive trade-offs in human societies, 2) the view that families are units of common interest integrated by the sexual division of labor, 3) current reconstructions of the evolution of foraging and food sharing among early hominids, and 4) assessments of the role of risk and reciprocity in hunter-gatherer foraging strategies. 相似文献
7.
Wenda R. Trevathan 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1993,4(4):337-350
Consideration of the evolutionary and cross-cultural history of childbirth reveals many differences between the ways in which
most human females have experienced childbirth and the ways in which most women in contemporary industrialized obstetric settings
experience the event. In this paper I review two of these differences: the pain and anxiety of labor and delivery and the
discontinuity of care provided for the mother and infant. I argue that much of the dissatisfaction with birth practices in
the United States results from the failure of modern obstetric practice to meet the evolved needs of mothers and infants.
Wenda Trevathan is an associate professor of anthropology at New Mexico State University. Her research interests focus on
evolutionary and biosocial aspects of human female reproductive behavior, including childbirth, sexuality, and menopause.
She is the recipient of the 1990 Margaret Mead Award and has received midwifery training. 相似文献
8.
Richard G. Bribiescas 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1996,7(2):163-188
Salivary testosterone levels were measured in a population of New World indigenous adult hunter-gatherer males in order to
compare circulating levels of free unbound bioactive steroid with those previously reported among Boston and nonwestern males.
The study population consisted of adult Aché hunter-gatherer males (n=45) living in eastern Paraguay. Morning and evening salivary testosterone levels (TsalA.M.; TsalP.M.) among the Aché were considerably lower than western values (Boston) and even lower than other previously reported nonwestern
populations (Efe, Lese, Nepalese). No association was observed between height, weight, or age and salivary testosterone levels
within the Aché group, although older men (ages>40) were poorly represented in the study sample. Nevertheless, a mild correlation
was observed between Aché TsalA.M. levels and BMI (r=0.133,p=0.0725). Comparison of Aché values with those for other populations confirms the prevalence of significant interpopulational
variation in testosterone levels among adult males. Interpopulational variation in male testosterone is not as great, however,
as has been documented for ovarian steroids among females, nor is it likely that such variation reflects differences in male
fecundity. Nevertheless, such interpopulational variation in salivary testosterone levels may have a functional significance
in the regulation of protein anabolism in skeletal muscle, thereby affecting the overall energy budget of the organism. It
is suggested that relative suppression of average testosterone may be adaptive under conditions of chronic energy shortage.
This research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the Mellon Foundation, Sigma Xi, and Harvard University.
The author is a doctoral candidate in biological anthropology at Harvard University. He received his B.A. in anthropology
and psychology from UCLA in 1988 and his M.A. in anthropology from Harvard in 1994. His research interests include male reproductive
ecology, male hormone function, foraging societies, evolutionary biology, and behavioral evolution. 相似文献
9.
Birth order has been examined over a wide variety of dimensions in the context of modern populations. A consistent message
has been that it is better to be born first. The analysis of birth order in this paper is different in several ways from other
investigations into birth order effects. First, we examine the effect of birth order in an egalitarian, small-scale, kin-based
society, which has not been done before. Second, we use a different outcome measure, fertility, rather than outcome measures
of social, psychological, or economic success. We find, third, that being born late in an egalitarian, technologically simple
society rather than being born early has a positive outcome on fertility, and fourth, that number of older siblings and sibling
set size are even stronger predictors of fertility, especially for males.
Patricia Draper is a professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Nebraska. Her research interests are
in cross-cultural human development, evolutionary theory, hunter-gatherer society, and comparative family organization.
Raymond Hames is also a professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Nebraska. His research interests
are in behavioral and evolutionary ecology, exchange systems, and tropical forest peoples. 相似文献
10.
The concept of cooperative communities that enforce norm conformity through reward, as well as shaming, ridicule, and ostracism,
has been central to anthropology since the work of Durkheim. Prevailing approaches from evolutionary theory explain the willingness
to exert sanctions to enforce norms as self-interested behavior, while recent experimental studies suggest that altruistic
rewarding and punishing—“strong reciprocity”—play an important role in promoting cooperation. This paper will use data from
308 conversations among the Ju/’hoansi (!Kung) Bushmen (a) to examine the dynamics of norm enforcement, (b) to evaluate the costs of punishment in a forager society and understand how they are reduced, and (c) to determine whether hypotheses that center on individual self-interest provide sufficient explanations for bearing the
costs of norm enforcement, or whether there is evidence for strong reciprocity.
Polly Wiessner is a professor of anthropology at the University of Utah. She has carried out fieldwork with the Ju/’hoansi
of the Kalahari for the past 30 years on social networks, style in artifacts, economy, population, nutrition, and social change.
She has also worked among the Enga of Papua New Guinea since 1985 on the oral history of exchange, ritual, and warfare. 相似文献
11.
Thomas W. McDade 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》2001,12(1):9-25
Lactation constitutes a major focus for research in international health because of its dramatic impact on child survival;
evolutionary biology has investigated lactation as an important aspect of parenting strategy, with implications for understanding
parent-offspring conflict. These perspectives are brought together in an attempt to develop integrated models for an issue
of key international health concern: the duration of exclusive breast-feeding and the timing of weaning. This analysis highlights
the relevance of evolutionary theory for practical problems in public health, and it suggests the utility of public health
outcomes for addressing evolutionary questions.
Thomas McDade received his Ph.D. degree in anthropology from Emory University in 1999 and is currently an assistant professor
in the anthropology department at Northwestern University. His research interests include biocultural perspectives on issues
related to health and human development, with current attention focused on the cultural and evolutionary ecology of human
immune function. 相似文献
12.
《Ethology and sociobiology》1993,14(1):53-70
The ‘show off’ hypothesis proposed by K. Hawkes, and tested using data on Ache foragers, makes important connections between food resource choice, reproductive strategies, and food sharing by human foragers. We test predictions derived from that hypothesis concerning contexts of meat acquisition, association between individuals, mobility, and reproductive success among Kubo hunter-horticulturalists of the interior lowlands of Papua New Guinea. Application of the hypothesis to both the Kubo and Ache cases is questioned. Differences between Kubo males in means and variances of returns from hunting arise as a consequence of differential target specialization; they do not map onto variation in reproductive success. 相似文献
13.
Children’s play is widely believed by educators and social scientists to have a training function that contributes to psychosocial
development as well as the acquisition of skills related to adult competency in task performance. In this paper we examine
these assumptions from the perspective of life-history theory using behavioral observation and household economic data collected
among children in a community in the Okavango Delta of Botswana where people engage in mixed subsistence regimes of dry farming,
foraging, and herding.
We hypothesize that if play contributes to adult competency then time allocation to play will decrease as children approach
adult levels of competence. This hypothesis generates the following predictions: (1) time allocated to play activities that
develop specific productive skills should decline in relation to the proportion of adult competency achieved; (2) children
will spend more time in forms of play that are related to skill development in tasks specific to the subsistence ecology in
which that child participates or expects to participate; and (3) children will spend more time in forms of play that are related
to skill development in tasks clearly related to the gender-specific productive role in the subsistence ecology in which that
child participates or expects to participate.
We contrast these expectations with the alternative hypothesis that if play is not preparatory for adult competence then time
allocated to each play activity should diminish at the same rate. This latter hypothesis generates the following two predictions:
(1) time allocation to play should be unaffected by subsistence regime and (2) patterns of time allocation to play should
track patterns of growth and energy balance.
Results from multiple regression analysis support earlier research in this community showing that trade-offs between immediate
productivity and future returns were a primary determinant of children’s activity patterns. Children whose labor was in greater
demand spent significantly less time playing. In addition, controlling for age and gender, children spent significantly more
time in play activities related to tasks specific to their household subsistence economy. These results are consistent with
the assertion that play is an important factor in the development of adult competency and highlight the important contributions
of an evolutionary ecological perspective in understanding children’s developmental trajectories.
John Bock is an associate professor of anthropology at Cal State Fullerton and Associate Editor of Human Nature. He received a Ph.D. in Anthropology (Human Evolutionary Ecology) from the University of New Mexico in 1995, and from 1995
to 1998 was an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation postdoctoral fellow in demography and epidemiology at the National Centre for Epidemiology
and Population Health at Australian National University. His recent research has focused on the application of life-history
theory to understanding the evolution of the primate and human juvenile period. Bock has been conducting research among the
Okavango Delta peoples of Botswana since 1992, and his current research there is an examination of child development and family
demography in relation to socioecology and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Other research is focused on health disparities among minorities
and indigenous peoples in Botswana and the United States related to differential access to health care.
Sara E. Johnson is an assistant professor of anthropology at California State University, Fullerton. She received her Ph.D.
in Anthropology (Human Evolutionary Ecology) from the University of New Mexico in 2001. She uses behavioral ecology and life-history
theory to address her research interests in the evolution of primate and human growth; ecological variation and phenotypic
plasticity in growth and development; ecological variation in life course trajectories, including fertility, health, morbidity,
and mortality differentials; food acquisition and production related to nutrition; societal transformation and roles of the
elderly among indigenous peoples; and women’s reproductive and productive roles in both traditional and nontraditional societies.
Over the past 10 years she has conducted research on these issues in several different populations, including chacma baboons
in the Okavango Delta of Botswana, two multiethnic communities of forager/agropastoralists in the Okavango Delta of Botswana,
and among New Mexican men. 相似文献
14.
Michael S. Alvard 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1994,5(2):127-154
Native peoples have often been portrayed as natural conservationists, living a “balanced” existence with nature. It is argued
that this perspective is a result of an imprecise operational definition of conservation. Conservation is defined here in
contrast to the predictions of foraging theory, which assumes that foragers will behave to maximize their short-term harvesting
rate. A behavior is deemed conservation when a short-term cost is paid by the resource harvester in exchange for long-term
benefits in the form of sustainable harvests. An example of the usefulness of such an operational definition is presented
using data on patch and prey choice decisions of a group of subsistence hunters, the Piro of Amazonian Peru. Results indicate
that the area around the Piro village is depleted of prey, and that hunters allocate more time to patches where return rates
are highest. This response is consistent with both a conservation strategy and foraging theory. Contrary to the expectation
of the conservation strategy, however, hunters do not restrain from pursing opportunistically encountered prey in the depleted
areas. The implications for conservation policy are briefly discussed.
Michael Alvard received his Ph.D. at the University of New Mexico in 1993 and is currently an assistant professor of anthropology
at Dickinson College. His interests include the impact of traditional hunting on prey species and the evolution of conservation.
He is currently pursuing research opportunities with the Wana, a group of subsistence hunters living in the rain forests of
Sulawesi, Indonesia. 相似文献
15.
In this paper I explore the psychology of ritual performance and present a simple graphical model that clarifies several issues
in William Irons’s theory of religion as a “hard-to-fake” sign of commitment. Irons posits that religious behaviors or rituals
serve as costly signals of an individual’s commitment to a religious group. Increased commitment among members of a religious
group may facilitate intra-group cooperation, which is argued to be the primary adaptive benefit of religion. Here I propose
a proximate explanation for how individuals are able to pay the short-term costs of ritual performance to achieve the long-term
fitness benefits offered by religious groups. The model addresses three significant problems raised by Irons’s theory. First,
the model explains why potential free-riders do not join religious groups even when there are significant net benefits that
members of religious groups can achieve. Second, the model clarifies how costly a ritual must be to achieve stability and
prevent potential free-riders from joining the religious group. Third, the model suggests why religious groups may require
adherents to perform private rituals that are not observed by others. Several hypotheses generated from the model are also
discussed.
Richard Sosis is an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of Connecticut. His research interests include the
evolution of cooperation, utopian societies, and the behavioral ecology of religion. In collaboration with Bradley Ruffle
(Ben Gurion University) he is currently investigating the impact of privatization and religiosity on intra-group trust within
Israeli Kibbutzim. 相似文献
16.
This paper, using modern Darwinian theory, proposes an explanation for the increasingly high incidence of breast cancer found
among pre-and post-menopausal women living today in westernized countries. A number of factors have been said to be responsible:
genetic inheritance (BRCA-1), diet (specifically the increased consumption of dietary fat), exposure to carcinogenic agents,
lifetime menstrual activity, and reproductive factors. The primary aim of this paper is to demonstrate the value of a perspective
based on Darwinian theory. In this paper, Darwinian theory is used to explore the possibility that the increased incidence
of breast cancer is due primarily to the failure to complete in a timely manner the reproductive developmental cycle, beginning
at menarche and continuing through a series of pregnancies and lactation. On the basis of comparative data, we assume that
most women in ancestral populations began having children before age 20 or so and tended to remain either pregnant or nursing
for most of their adult lives. If a woman did not have a child by age 25 or so, she probably would never have one. Therefore,
selection would probably not have acted against deleterious traits, such as cancer, that appeared after that age, just as
it does not act against such traits in old age.
This article is based upon a paper presented at the Sixth Annual Scientific Meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society,
June 18th, 1994, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Kathryn Coe is a Ph.D. candidate in anthropology at Arizona State University and project director of an NCI grant focusing
on cervical and breast cancer in Hispanic women. Field research for her doctoral dissertation focused on the health, fertility,
and culture of the Chachi Indians of the coastal rain forest of Ecuador.
Lyle Steadman is an assistant professor of anthropology at Arizona State University. He has conducted research for more than
two years among the isolated Hewa of Papua New Guinea. His research interests include evolutionary theory and culture, particularly
religion and kinship. 相似文献
17.
This paper considers religion in relation to four recurrent traits: belief systems incorporating supernatural agents and counterintuitive
concepts, communal ritual, separation of the sacred and the profane, and adolescence as a preferred developmental period for
religious transmission. These co-occurring traits are viewed as an adaptive complex that offers clues to the evolution of
religion from its nonhuman ritual roots. We consider the critical element differentiating religious from non-human ritual
to be the conditioned association of emotion and abstract symbols. We propose neurophysiological mechanisms underlying such
associations and argue that the brain plasticity of human adolescence constitutes an “experience expectant” developmental
period for ritual conditioning of sacred symbols. We suggest that such symbols evolved to solve an ecological problem by extending
communication and coordination of social relations across time and space.
Candace Alcorta is currently a doctoral student in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut. Her research
interests include the behavioral ecology and evolution of religion, and the interrelationship between cultural and neurophysiological
systems. She is currently conducting research on adolescent religious participation, stress, and health.
Richard Sosis is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut and a senior lecturer
in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His current research interests include
the evolution of cooperation, utopian societies, and the behavioral ecology of religion. He has conducted fieldwork on Ifaluk
Atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia and is currently pursuing various projects in Israel aimed at understanding the
benefits and costs associated with religious behavior. 相似文献
18.
Hillard S. Kaplan Jane B. Lancaster Sara E. Johnson John A. Bock 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1995,6(4):325-360
Our objective is to test an optimality model of human fertility that specifies the behavioral requirements for fitness maximization
in order (a) to determine whether current behavior does maximize fitness and, if not, (b) to use the specific nature of the behavioral deviations from fitness maximization towards the development of models of evolved
proximate mechanisms that may have maximized fitness in the past but lead to deviations under present conditions. To test
the model we use data from a representative sample of 7,107 men living in Albuquerque, New Mexico, between 1990 and 1993.
The model we test proposes that low fertility in modern settings maximizes number of grandchildren as a result of a trade-off
between parental fertility and next generation fertility. Results do not show the optimization, although the data do reveal
a trade-off between parental fertility and offspring education and income.
We propose that two characteristics of modern economies have led to a period of sustained fertility reduction and to a corresponding
lack of association between income and fertility. The first is the direct link between costs of investment and wage rates
due to the forces of supply and demand for labor in competitive economies. The second is the increasing emphasis on cumulative
knowledge, skills, and technologies in the production of resources. Together they produce historically novel conditions. These
two features of modern economies may interact with evolved psychological and physiological mechanisms governing fertility
and parental investment to produce behavior that maximizes the economic productivity of lineages at the expense of fitness.
If cognitive processes evolved to track diminishing returns to parental investment and if physiological processes evolved
to regulate fertility in response to nutritional state and patterns of breast feeding, we might expect non-adaptive responses
when returns from parental investment do not diminish until extremely high levels are reached. With high economic payoffs
from parental investment, people have begun to exercise cognitive regulation of fertility through contraception and family
planning practices. Those cognitive processes maynot have evolved to handle fitness trade-offs between fertility and parental investment.
A preliminary presentation of this data was published in R. I. M. Dunbar, ed.,Human Reproduction Decisions: Biological and Social Perspectives. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. Support for the research project, “Male Fertility and Parenting in New Mexico,” began
with two seed grants from the University of New Mexico’s Biomedical Research Grants Program, 1988 and 1989, and one from the
University of New Mexico Research Allocations Committee, 1988. Further seed money as well as interim funding came from the
William T. Grant Foundation (#89130589 and #91130501). The major support for the project came from the National Science Foundation
from 1990 to 1993 (#BNS-9011723 and #DBS-911552). Both National Science Foundation grants included Research Experience for
Undergraduates supplements.
Hillard S. Kaplan is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. His earlier research and publications
focused on food sharing, time allocation, parental investment, and reproductive strategies among Ache hunter-gatherers in
Paraguay, Machiguenga and Piro forager-horticulturalists in Peru, and villagers of several ethnicities in Botswana. New research
and theory concern fertility, parental investment, and mating strategies in developed and developing nations. This research
formulates a new theory of reproductive decision-making and the demographic transition, integrating human capital and parental
investment theory in a synthesis of economic and evolutionary approaches.
Jane B. Lancaster is a Professor of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. Her research and publications are on human
reproductive biology and behavior, especially human parental investment; women’s reproductive biology of pregnancy, lactation,
and child-spacing; and male fertility and investment in children. Current research with Hillard S. Kaplan is on male life
history strategies among a large sample of men in New Mexico. She has coedited three books on human parental investment:School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood (with B. Hamburg),Parenting across the Life Span (with J. Altmann, A. Rossi, and L. Sherrod), andOffspring Abuse and Neglect (with R. Gelles). She is scientific editor of a quarterly journal,Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary, Biosocial Perspective published by Aldine de Gruyter. She is also a council member of the newly formed Human Behavior and Evolution Society.
John A. Bock is Andrew W. Mellon Post-Doctoral Fellow in Epidemiology and Population Health at the National Centre for Epidemiology
and Population Health, The Australian National University. His research focuses on the allocation of parental investment and
the determinants of children’s activities, integrating aspects of economic and evolutionary theory. He has ongoing field research
with Bantu and Bushmen agro-pastoralists and forager-horticulturalists in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. He is also collaborating
with Lancaster and Kaplan on the determinants of progeny distribution and homosexuality among New Mexican men.
Sara E. Johnson is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of New Mexico. Her major research trajectory focuses on trade-offs
in life history characters. Her research experience includes participation in a study of variation in growth and development
among children in a multi-ethnic community in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, in addition to her dissertation work on individual
variation in growth and mortality among juvenile baboons. She is collaborating with Lancaster and Kaplan on the association
between survival and fertility among Albuquerque men. 相似文献
19.
Troy D. Abell 《Human nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.)》1992,3(4):335-378
Low birth weight, intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity are overwhelming risk factors associated with infant mortality
and morbidity. The lack of efficacious prenatal screening tests for these three outcomes illuminates the problems inherent
in bivariate estimates of association. A biocultural strategy for research is presented, integrating societal and familial
levels of analysis with the metabolic, immune, vascular, and neuroendocrine systems of the body. Policy decisions, it is argued,
need to be based on this type of biocultural information in order to impact the difficult-to-change problems of low birth
weight, intrauterine growth retardation, and prematurity.
The analysis and writing of this study was funded, in part, by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD RO1 HD 20511).
Troy D. Abell is associate professor of anthropology and adjunct associate professor of family medicine at the University
of Oklahoma. His major interests are in the biocultural determinants of fetal growth and the epistemologic issues inherent
in statistical reasoning in scientific inference and decision analysis. 相似文献
20.
While aggregating the throughput of existing disks on cluster nodes is a cost-effective approach to alleviate the I/O bottleneck
in cluster computing, this approach suffers from potential performance degradations due to contentions for shared resources
on the same node between storage data processing and user task computation. This paper proposes to judiciously utilize the
storage redundancy in the form of mirroring existed in a RAID-10 style file system to alleviate this performance degradation.
More specifically, a heuristic scheduling algorithm is developed, motivated from the observations of a simple cluster configuration,
to spatially schedule write operations on the nodes with less load among each mirroring pair. The duplication of modified
data to the mirroring nodes is performed asynchronously in the background. The read performance is improved by two techniques:
doubling the degree of parallelism and hot-spot skipping. A synthetic benchmark is used to evaluate these algorithms in a
real cluster environment and the proposed algorithms are shown to be very effective in performance enhancement.
Yifeng Zhu received his B.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering in 1998 from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China;
the M.S. and Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from University of Nebraska – Lincoln in 2002 and 2005 respectively. He is an
assistant professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering department at University of Maine. His main research interests
are cluster computing, grid computing, computer architecture and systems, and parallel I/O storage systems. Dr. Zhu is a Member
of ACM, IEEE, the IEEE Computer Society, and the Francis Crowe Society.
Hong Jiang received the B.Sc. degree in Computer Engineering in 1982 from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China;
the M.A.Sc. degree in Computer Engineering in 1987 from the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and the PhD degree in
Computer Science in 1991 from the Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA. Since August 1991 he has been at the
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA, where he is Professor and Vice Chair in the Department of Computer
Science and Engineering. His present research interests are computer architecture, parallel/distributed computing, cluster
and Grid computing, computer storage systems and parallel I/O, performance evaluation, real-time systems, middleware, and
distributed systems for distance education. He has over 100 publications in major journals and international Conferences in
these areas and his research has been supported by NSF, DOD and the State of Nebraska. Dr. Jiang is a Member of ACM, the IEEE
Computer Society, and the ACM SIGARCH.
Xiao Qin received the BS and MS degrees in computer science from Huazhong University of Science and Technology in 1992 and 1999, respectively.
He received the PhD degree in computer science from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln in 2004. Currently, he is an assistant
professor in the department of computer science at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. He had served as a subject
area editor of IEEE Distributed System Online (2000–2001). His research interests are in parallel and distributed systems, storage systems, real-time computing, performance
evaluation, and fault-tolerance. He is a member of the IEEE.
Dan Feng received the Ph.D degree from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China, in 1997. She is currently a professor
of School of Computer, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China. She is the principal scientist of the
the National Grand Fundamental Research 973 Program of China “Research on the organization and key technologies of the Storage
System on the next generation Internet.” Her research interests include computer architecture, storage system, parallel I/O,
massive storage and performance evaluation.
David Swanson received a Ph.D. in physical (computational) chemistry at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) in 1995, after which he
worked as an NSF-NATO postdoctoral fellow at the Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland, in 1996, and subsequently as a National
Research Council Research Associate at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC, from 1997–1998. In 1999 he returned
to UNL where he directs the Research Computing Facility and currently serves as an Assistant Research Professor in the Department
of Computer Science and Engineering. The Office of Naval Research, the National Science Foundation, and the State of Nebraska
have supported his research in areas such as large-scale scientific simulation and distributed systems. 相似文献