核糖开关及其在抗菌药物方面的研究进展

核糖开关是一类与核酸、氨基酸、金属离子、糖类衍生物以及辅酶等特异性配体结合的RNA元件,它与配体结合后通过调控相应下游的基因表达起到控制细胞生命及活动的作用。目前核糖开关是基因调控方面的研究热点,应用于大量筛选工程菌株、构建新型生物传感器以及作为抗菌药作用的新靶点。综述了几种主要的核糖开关(如:嘌呤核糖开关、赖氨酸核糖开关、环二鸟苷酸核糖开关、glm S核糖开关、TPP核糖开关、FMN核糖开关等)在抗菌药物靶点方面的研究进展。     

等温滴定量热法研究核糖开关aac与氨基糖苷类抗生素的相互作用

核糖开关(riboswitch)是位于m RNA非编码区域的RNA元件,可与小分子配体结合导致结构转变,进而调控下游基因的表达。核糖开关aac能够特异性结合氨基糖苷类抗生素,从而调控氨基糖苷类抗生素抗性基因的表达。目前,核糖开关aac与氨基糖苷类抗生素相互作用的位点和机制尚不清楚。作者利用等温滴定量热法对核糖开关aac与氨基糖苷类抗生素的结合亲和力及结合热力学性质进行了研究,并初步探讨了点突变对相互作用的影响。结果发现,西索米星、庆大霉素、G418、奈替霉素和巴龙霉素能够特异性结合核糖开关aac,而阿米卡星、卡那霉素A、链霉素、链丝菌素、新霉胺、新霉素及核糖霉素与核糖开关aac无特异性相互作用;核糖开关aac与氨基糖苷类抗生素的结合热力学性质表明二者通过氢键和范德华力发生相互作用。西索米星滴定核糖开关aac突变体的结果表明,U68和A18位点很可能与氨基糖苷类抗生素形成氢键,A13和A44位点对于相互作用也有影响。这些结果对进一步研究核糖开关aac与氨基糖苷类抗生素相互作用的位点和机制具有重要的参考价值。     

新型基因表达调控元件——人工核糖开关的构建及筛选

核糖开关作为一种新发现的RNA元件,可以高效、准确、快速地执行基因调控任务,且免疫原性低,有可能在将来以顺式模块的方式应用于未来的基因治疗。近年来已经成功构建了多种人造核糖开关,构建方法主要是利用人工适体元件与基因表达调控元件组装,或者是在天然核糖开关基础上进行改造。文中全面综述了涉及人工核糖开关设计及筛选的技术,讨论了可以用于哺乳细胞、响应非天然配体信号、调控特征为热力学和动力学控制的核糖开关的设计新策略,并对核糖开关的筛选构建策略及其在基因治疗及新型药物开发领域的应用前景进行了展望。尽管目前将核糖开关设计成为功能强大的新型基因调控系统还面临很大的困难,但通过构效关系的研究、计算机辅助设计、体外筛选及细胞内筛选技术、高通量优化筛选等技术的综合应用,核糖开关一定可以成为有力的基因调控工具,如能成功应用则可大大促进基因治疗临床化的进程。     

适体核酶型人工核糖开关的设计

适体核酶型核糖开关是近年出现的一种人工基因调控开关。最常见的适体核酶由锤头状核酶和适体组成,结构清晰,易于设计。作为一种顺式作用元件,适体核酶型核糖开关在特异性配体的作用下,无需蛋白质辅助,即可通过调节自身裂解反应,调控mRNA的翻译,可应用于多种细胞的基因调控。目前适体核酶型核糖开关的设计,主要是通过合理组装核酶与适体元件,整合到mRNA后再进行功能筛选。该基因调控开关调节幅度大、响应迅速、调控方式简洁,有可能应用于体内传感器、基因治疗、生物处理器等多个领域。     

小分子靶标的核糖开关生物传感器研究进展

小分子化合物种类繁多，在众多生化过程中发挥关键作用，具有重要的检测意义与价值,其快速灵敏可视化检测技术的开发是当前的研究热点。基于核糖开关的生物传感器因具有识别特性高、操作简便、成本低等优势，为小分子检测提供了一条新途径。对核糖开关的来源、构成、调控机制、体内外筛选，特别是对基于小分子靶标的核糖开关生物传感器分类进行了介绍，并从核糖开关的筛选、裁剪、理性设计、核糖开关无细胞传感器的应用等几个方向提出了展望，以期为小分子靶标的核糖开关生物传感器的发展和应用提供理论依据。     

环二鸟苷单磷酸核糖开关的结构与功能

环二鸟苷单磷酸(c-di-GMP)是细菌中广泛存在的一类核苷类第二信使分子,能够调控细菌的生物被膜形成、运动性、黏附、毒力以及胞外多糖的产生等众多生理活动。核糖开关是m RNA 5′-非翻译区(5′-Untranslational region,5′-UTR)的一段RNA序列,包含可以识别并结合配体的保守序列——适配体区(Aptamer domain,AD),以及结构多变、可以调控下游编码基因的表达平台区(Expression platform,EP)。当代谢物分子浓度比较高时,其与适配体区结合,引起下游的表达平台区发生构象变化,进而实现对下游基因的调节。目前已发现c-di-GMP-Ⅰ和c-di-GMP-Ⅱ两类c-di-GMP的核糖开关。它们通过特异性地结合c-di-GMP,调控种类繁多的下游基因的表达。c-di-GMP-I核糖开关分布广泛,尤其在厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)和变形菌门(Proteobacteria)的细菌中最为丰富。c-di-GMP-Ⅱ核糖开关具备变构核酶的功能,结合c-di-GMP后在其非典型剪切位点处发生结构变化,调节下游基因表达。文中围绕c-di-GMP核糖开关的发现、功能、分类以及下游调控基因的功能进行综述与分析。     

基于核糖开关的新型基因表达调控系统的应用

核糖开关是能对细胞环境的改变做出反应的顺式作用元件,通过改变自身的构象实现对基因表达的调控。基于核糖开关调控方式简洁,无需蛋白质参与,响应迅速,且自身片段小,结构简单,易于设计和改造等特性使其在生物医学领域体现出诸多应用优势。对核糖开关的结构,调节机理以及这种新型基因表达调控系统在基因治疗、抗生素新靶点的开发、病毒疫苗的安全控制、新型核糖选择器和生物体内传感器的应用进行了综述,旨为启示我国核糖开关的新型应用。     

核糖开关的结构和调控机理

一种新发现的RNA分子——核糖开关,通过感知代谢物浓度的变化调控目标基因的表达。它可以调整自身的结构直接结合代谢物小分子,而不需要蛋白因子的参与。在原核生物中发现了大量的核糖开关,在真核生物如植物和真菌中也发现了核糖开关。核糖开关由适体域和表达平台两个功能域组成,能在不同水平调控基因的表达,如转录终止、翻译起始、mRNA剪辑和加工。核糖开关不需要蛋白因子的参与,因此人们认为它可能是古代RNA世界的遗留物。核糖开关作为RNA传感器可以设计成一种基因控制元件,在未来的基因治疗方面可能具有很大的应用前景。     

核糖开关与基因表达调控

核糖开关(riboswitch)是近几年基因表达调控研究的一个热点.核糖开关位于mRNA的非翻译区(untranslated regions, UTR),能够直接感受胞内外信号并引起自身二级结构的变化,在转录或后转录（翻译和mRNA稳定性）水平实现对下游相关基因的表达调控,该过程不依赖于包括蛋白质在内的其它任何因子的作用. 根据现已发现的核糖开关所能识别的信号因子类型,可以将其分为4类,即小分子代谢物、金属离子、环境因素及空载tRNA敏感的核糖开关;其中,小分子代谢物敏感的核糖开关是发现和研究最多且最深入的一类. 随着研究的深入,将会有更多的核糖开关被发现,这不仅有助于理解生物进化与环境适应性,而且在生物学基础研究,新型药物的开发以及工业生产领域都将发挥重要作用.     

核糖开关的研究及应用

核糖开关是一类自然界中天然存在的适配子,通过结合小分子代谢物调控基因的表达。它位于特定的mRNA非编码区,可以不依赖任何蛋白质因子而直接结合代谢物并发生构象变化,在转录和翻译水平上参与调控生物的基本代谢途径。目前已知核糖开关不仅广泛存在于细菌的代谢相关基因中,还存在于某些真菌和植物中。对核糖开关的深入研究将为基因功能研究、生物传感器研发以及新型抗菌药物开发等提供新的途径。     

Themes and variations in riboswitch structure and function

The complexity of gene expression control by non-coding RNA has been highlighted by the recent progress in the field of riboswitches. Discovered a decade ago, riboswitches represent a diverse group of non-coding mRNA regions that possess a unique ability to directly sense cellular metabolites and modulate gene expression through formation of alternative metabolite-free and metabolite-bound conformations. Such protein-free metabolite sensing domains utilize sophisticated three-dimensional folding of RNA molecules to discriminate between a cognate ligand from related compounds so that only the right ligand would trigger a genetic response. Given the variety of riboswitch ligands ranging from small cations to large coenzymes, riboswitches adopt a great diversity of structures. Although many riboswitches share structural principles to build metabolite-competent folds, form precise ligand-binding pockets, and communicate a ligand-binding event to downstream regulatory regions, virtually all riboswitch classes possess unique features for ligand recognition, even those tuned to recognize the same metabolites. Here we present an overview of the biochemical and structural research on riboswitches with a major focus on common principles and individual characteristics adopted by these regulatory RNA elements during evolution to specifically target small molecules and exert genetic responses. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Riboswitches.     

Conformational capture of the SAM-II riboswitch

Riboswitches are gene regulation elements in mRNA that function by specifically responding to metabolites. Although the metabolite-bound states of riboswitches have proven amenable to structure determination efforts, knowledge of the structural features of riboswitches in their ligand-free forms and their ligand-response mechanisms giving rise to regulatory control is lacking. Here we explore the ligand-induced folding process of the S-adenosylmethionine type II (SAM-II) riboswitch using chemical and biophysical methods, including NMR and fluorescence spectroscopy, and single-molecule fluorescence imaging. The data reveal that the unliganded SAM-II riboswitch is dynamic in nature, in that its stem-loop element becomes engaged in a pseudoknot fold through base-pairing with nucleosides in the 3' overhang containing the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Although the pseudoknot structure is highly transient in the absence of its ligand, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), it becomes conformationally restrained upon ligand recognition, through a conformational capture mechanism. These insights provide a molecular understanding of riboswitch dynamics that shed new light on the mechanism of riboswitch-mediated translational regulation.     

Single-molecule force spectroscopy of the add adenine riboswitch relates folding to regulatory mechanism

Riboswitches regulate gene expression via ligand binding to an aptamer domain which induces conformational changes in a regulatory expression platform. By unfolding and refolding single add adenine riboswitch molecules in an optical trap, an integrated picture of the folding was developed and related to the regulatory mechanism. Force-extension curves (FECs) and constant-force folding trajectories measured on the aptamer alone revealed multiple partially-folded states, including several misfolded states not on the native folding pathway. All states were correlated to key structural components and interactions within hierarchical folding pathways. FECs of the full-length riboswitch revealed that the thermodynamically stable conformation switches upon ligand binding from a structure repressing translation to one permitting it. Along with rapid equilibration of the two structures in the absence of adenine, these results support a thermodynamically-controlled regulatory mechanism, in contrast with the kinetic control of the closely-related pbuE adenine riboswitch. Comparison of the folding of these riboswitches revealed many similarities arising from shared structural features but also essential differences related to their different regulatory mechanisms.     

Design Principles for Riboswitch Function

Scientific and technological advances that enable the tuning of integrated regulatory components to match network and system requirements are critical to reliably control the function of biological systems. RNA provides a promising building block for the construction of tunable regulatory components based on its rich regulatory capacity and our current understanding of the sequence–function relationship. One prominent example of RNA-based regulatory components is riboswitches, genetic elements that mediate ligand control of gene expression through diverse regulatory mechanisms. While characterization of natural and synthetic riboswitches has revealed that riboswitch function can be modulated through sequence alteration, no quantitative frameworks exist to investigate or guide riboswitch tuning. Here, we combined mathematical modeling and experimental approaches to investigate the relationship between riboswitch function and performance. Model results demonstrated that the competition between reversible and irreversible rate constants dictates performance for different regulatory mechanisms. We also found that practical system restrictions, such as an upper limit on ligand concentration, can significantly alter the requirements for riboswitch performance, necessitating alternative tuning strategies. Previous experimental data for natural and synthetic riboswitches as well as experiments conducted in this work support model predictions. From our results, we developed a set of general design principles for synthetic riboswitches. Our results also provide a foundation from which to investigate how natural riboswitches are tuned to meet systems-level regulatory demands.     

Computational analysis of riboswitch-based regulation

Advances in computational analysis of riboswitches in the last decade have contributed greatly to our understanding of riboswitch regulatory roles and mechanisms. Riboswitches were originally discovered as part of the sequence analysis of the 5′-untranslated region of mRNAs in the hope of finding novel gene regulatory sites, and the existence of structural RNAs appeared to be a spurious phenomenon. As more riboswitches were discovered, they illustrated the diversity and adaptability of these RNA regulatory sequences. The fact that a chemically monotonous molecule like RNA can discern a wide range of substrates and exert a variety of regulatory mechanisms was subsequently demonstrated in diverse genomes and has hastened the development of sophisticated algorithms for their analysis and prediction. In this review, we focus on some of the computational tools for riboswitch detection and secondary structure prediction. The study of this simple yet efficient form of gene regulation promises to provide a more complete picture of a world that RNA once dominated and allows rational design of artificial riboswitches. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Riboswitches.     

Common themes and differences in SAM recognition among SAM riboswitches

The recent discovery of short cis-acting RNA elements termed riboswitches has caused a paradigm shift in our understanding of genetic regulatory mechanisms. The three distinct superfamilies of S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) riboswitches are the most commonly found riboswitch classes in nature. These RNAs represent three independent evolutionary solutions to achieve specific SAM recognition. This review summarizes research on 1) modes of gene regulatory mechanisms, 2) common themes and differences in ligand recognition, and 3) ligand-induced conformational dynamics among SAM riboswitch families. The body of work on the SAM riboswitch families constitutes a useful primer to the topic of gene regulatory RNAs as a whole.     

Riboswitch regulation mechanisms: RNA,metabolites and regulatory proteins

Riboswitches are RNA sensors that have been shown to modulate the expression of downstream genes by altering their structure upon metabolite binding. Riboswitches are unique among cellular regulators in that metabolite detection is strictly performed using RNA interactions with the sensed metabolite and in which no regulatory protein is needed to mediate the interaction. However, recent studies have shed light on riboswitch control mechanisms relying on protein regulators to harness metabolite binding for the mediation of gene expression, thereby increasing the range of cellular factors involved in riboswitch regulation. The interaction between riboswitches and proteins adds another level of evolutionary pressure as riboswitches must maintain key residues for metabolite detection, structural switching and protein binding sites. Here, we review regulatory mechanisms involving Escherichia coli riboswitches that have recently been shown to rely on regulatory proteins. We also discuss the implication of such protein-based riboswitch regulatory mechanisms for genetic regulation.     

Single-molecule studies of riboswitch folding

The folding dynamics of riboswitches are central to their ability to modulate gene expression in response to environmental cues. In most cases, a structural competition between the formation of a ligand-binding aptamer and an expression platform (or some other competing off-state) determines the regulatory outcome. Here, we review single-molecule studies of riboswitch folding and function, predominantly carried out using single-molecule FRET or optical trapping approaches. Recent results have supplied new insights into riboswitch folding energy landscapes, the mechanisms of ligand binding, the roles played by divalent ions, the applicability of hierarchical folding models, and kinetic vs. thermodynamic control schemes. We anticipate that future work, based on improved data sets and potentially combining multiple experimental techniques, will enable the development of more complete models for complex RNA folding processes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Riboswitches.