光遗传学技术研究进展

光遗传学技术是结合遗传学和光学对生物体特定细胞实现精确光控的新兴生物技术。自基于微生物视蛋白的光遗传学策略应用以来,光遗传学在视蛋白的开发与优化,基于病毒和重组酶的遗传学定位表达以及光学传输技术等方面都取得了显著进展。光遗传学在现代神经生物学领域应用广泛,在神经环路、行为、中枢神经系统疾病、精神疾病的机理研究中发挥着重要作用。主要介绍光遗传学技术的发展历程,重点介绍光遗传学工具的优化以及定位表达,旨在为光遗传学及相关领域的研究发展提供参考。     

光遗传学

虽然＂光遗传学＂只是一种技术方法,但它在文献中正愈来愈多地被提到。光遗传学结合了重组DNA技术与光学技术,对细胞生物学的研究非常有用。它被广泛应用于活细胞内目标蛋白质的跟踪以及选择性地控制脑中某类细胞的特定的神经活动从而推动了神经科学研究的深入。近来光遗传学的应用扩展到了信号转导的研究,也开始有医学临床的应用的报道。进一步发展光遗传学无疑将推动合成生理学的研究。光遗传学被《自然-方法学》期刊评为2010年年度方法。     

光遗传学技术用于调控细胞信号通路的研究

光遗传学技术结合蛋白的遗传学表达与激光的光控和成像,可实现对细胞内特定信号通路分子的快速激活与调控,在细胞生物学的研究中具有广阔的应用前景。至今为止,越来越多的光控元件被发现,它们具备不同的结构特征及光反应特性,极大的扩展了光遗传学技术的生物医学应用。该综述将对不同种类的光控元件及其应用于活细胞中信号通路调控的研究进行总结。     

利用光遗传学技术构建小鼠光控心脏起搏模型

电刺激是人工控制心脏搏动频率的标准技术,但在实验研究中,这种方法有较大的局限性,如局部电解效应、刺激频率和时长受限、只能对目标范围内的所有细胞进行刺激、不能选择性作用于心肌细胞等.基于光遗传学技术,本研究构建了心肌细胞特异性表达光激活阳离子通道channelrhodopsin-2(ChR2)的转基因小鼠,采用特定频率的...     

钙信号相关光遗传学工具开发及其在神经生物学中的应用

神经元通过动作电位及突触传递来使动物对内外刺激做出快速而准确的反应.钙信号通过介导或调控上述生理过程,成为神经元活动的标志.凭借高度的时空特异性,光遗传学成为探究神经元钙信号的一种理想手段.近年来,基于一系列光敏蛋白所开发出的光控钙信号工具,在不断完善和改进下,被成功地应用于神经生物学研究中.利用这些工具在多种模式动物中进行了低损伤性的光遗传学操作,实现了从神经元钙信号到动物记忆及行为的光操纵,体现了这类工具巨大的潜在应用价值.本文总结了钙信号相关光遗传学工具的最新研究进展,介绍了不同光控钙信号工具的设计原理及其在神经生物学中的应用,并对后续发展进行了展望.     

光遗传学技术在疼痛研究中的应用

疼痛是影响广泛的临床问题,目前对于疼痛还缺乏非常有效的特异性药物和治疗方法。疼痛的传导通路涉及外周、脊髓和脊髓上多个水平,具有复杂多样性的特点。要解决疼痛方面的问题,首先要对疼痛感觉通路和神经生物学机制有清晰的认识。光遗传学方法是一项能够选择性激活体内特定类型神经元的技术,该技术的发展为深入解析神经系统多种传导通路以及调控机制提供了可能。本文综述了迄今在疼痛研究领域的光遗传学技术研究进展,并列举了在疼痛研究中有潜在应用价值的新型光遗传学方法。     

光遗传学技术在神经生物学领域的发展及应用

光遗传学技术是基因工程学与光学相结合的一项新兴技术。简要介绍了光遗传学技术的概念、发展过程及作用机理,概述了光遗传学技术中通道视蛋白的类型和该技术在神经生物学领域的应用。     

光控诱导重组系统的开发与应用

位点特异性重组系统由重组酶和特异性识别位点两部分组成,是一种强大的基因操作工具,被广泛运用于生命科学研究。已开发的诱导型重组系统以时空方式精准调控细胞和动物的基因表达,被用于基因功能研究、细胞谱系示踪和疾病治疗等领域。根据诱导重组酶时空表达方式的不同,诱导型重组系统可分为化学诱导和光控诱导两种方式。光控诱导重组系统是利用光作为诱导剂,根据光控方式和对象的不同,可进一步分为光笼和光遗传学两类。光笼诱导重组系统是利用光敏基团来控制化学诱导剂或重组酶,光诱导前它们的活性被光敏基团抑制;在特定光照射后,它们的活性被恢复,进而实现光控诱导基因重组。光遗传学诱导重组系统是通过光遗传学开关介导分割型重组酶的重新激活来诱导基因重组。其中光遗传学开关由一系列基因编码的光敏蛋白组成,包括隐花色素、VIVID蛋白、光敏色素等。这些类型丰富的光控诱导重组系统为从高时空分辨率的维度解析基因的表达和功能提供了更多的工具,以满足日益复杂的生命科学研究需求。本文主要对不同类型光控诱导重组系统的开发原理及应用进行综述,比较其优缺点,最后对未来开发更多光控重组系统进行展望,旨在为系统优化升级提供理论基础和指导。     

光控表达系统在合成生物学中的调控作用

光遗传学技术是将遗传学技术与光控技术相结合,利用光源控制生物过程的一项全新技术。光控表达系统是基于光遗传学技术与合成生物学方法相结合的策略,将光作为感测模块与生物体内已有的基因模块组合构成全新的基因回路,通过光信号动态调控基因表达的系统。该系统是一种低成本、低毒性、高灵活性的新型动态调控开关,对基因精准调控的同时还能有效解决能源短缺问题。目前,该系统已经成熟地应用于疾病诊疗、材料合成等领域,同时也极大促进了微生物代谢及合成生物学的发展。光受体是光遗传学技术中不可缺少的工具元件,根据不同生物光受体的感光特性,介绍用于控制基因表达的光调控系统,重点分析其在调控微生物系统内基因表达、代谢途径和药物递送中的应用,探讨光遗传学技术在合成生物学应用中可能存在的问题及未来发展前景。     

利用光遗传学研究抑郁行为神经机制的新进展

光遗传学技术是将光学、遗传学和分子生物学结合而产生的一门新技术。此项技术凭借能高度精确地改变清醒的、可自由活动的动物脑内靶神经元功能状态的优势,有望成为抑郁行为神经机制研究的理想手段。本文在简介光遗传学技术及其优越性的前提下,对该技术在抑郁行为神经机制研究中的应用进展做一综述。     

Optogenetic manipulation of neural activity in C. elegans: From synapse to circuits and behaviour

The emerging field of optogenetics allows for optical activation or inhibition of excitable cells. In 2005, optogenetic proteins were expressed in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans for the first time. Since then, C. elegans has served as a powerful platform upon which to conduct optogenetic investigations of synaptic function, circuit dynamics and the neuronal basis of behaviour. The C. elegans nervous system, consisting of 302 neurons, whose connectivity and morphology has been mapped completely, drives a rich repertoire of behaviours that are quantifiable by video microscopy. This model organism's compact nervous system, quantifiable behaviour, genetic tractability and optical accessibility make it especially amenable to optogenetic interrogation. Channelrhodopsin‐2 (ChR2), halorhodopsin (NpHR/Halo) and other common optogenetic proteins have all been expressed in C. elegans. Moreover, recent advances leveraging molecular genetics and patterned light illumination have now made it possible to target photoactivation and inhibition to single cells and to do so in worms as they behave freely. Here, we describe techniques and methods for optogenetic manipulation in C. elegans. We review recent work using optogenetics and C. elegans for neuroscience investigations at the level of synapses, circuits and behaviour.     

From dusk till dawn: one-plasmid systems for light-regulated gene expression

Signaling photoreceptors mediate diverse organismal adaptations in response to light. As light-gated protein switches, signaling photoreceptors provide the basis for optogenetics, a term that refers to the control of organismal physiology and behavior by light. We establish as novel optogenetic tools the plasmids pDusk and pDawn, which employ blue-light photoreceptors to confer light-repressed or light-induced gene expression in Escherichia coli with up to 460-fold induction upon illumination. Key features of these systems are low background activity, high dynamic range, spatial control on the 20-μm scale, independence from exogenous factors, and ease of use. In optogenetic experiments, pDusk and pDawn can be used to specifically perturb individual nodes of signaling networks and interrogate their role. On the preparative scale, pDawn can induce by light the production of recombinant proteins and thus represents a cost-effective and readily automated alternative to conventional induction systems.     

New era of optogenetics: from the central to peripheral nervous system

Abstract

Optogenetics has recently gained recognition as a biological technique to control the activity of cells using light stimulation. Many studies have applied optogenetics to cell lines in the central nervous system because it has the potential to elucidate neural circuits, treat neurological diseases and promote nerve regeneration. There have been fewer studies on the application of optogenetics in the peripheral nervous system. This review introduces the basic principles and approaches of optogenetics and summarizes the physiology and mechanism of opsins and how the technology enables bidirectional control of unique cell lines with superior spatial and temporal accuracy. Further, this review explores and discusses the therapeutic potential for the development of optogenetics and its capacity to revolutionize treatment for refractory epilepsy, depression, pain, and other nervous system disorders, with a focus on neural regeneration, especially in the peripheral nervous system. Additionally, this review synthesizes the latest preclinical research on optogenetic stimulation, including studies on non-human primates, summarizes the challenges, and highlights future perspectives. The potential of optogenetic stimulation to optimize therapy for peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) is also highlighted. Optogenetic technology has already generated exciting, preliminary evidence, supporting its role in applications to several neurological diseases, including PNIs.     

The bright frontiers of microbial metabolic optogenetics

In recent years, light-responsive systems from the field of optogenetics have been applied to several areas of metabolic engineering with remarkable success. By taking advantage of light's high tunability, reversibility, and orthogonality to host endogenous processes, optogenetic systems have enabled unprecedented dynamical controls of microbial fermentations for chemical production, metabolic flux analysis, and population compositions in co-cultures. In this article, we share our opinions on the current state of this new field of metabolic optogenetics.We make the case that it will continue to impact metabolic engineering in increasingly new directions, with the potential to challenge existing paradigms for metabolic pathway and strain optimization as well as bioreactor operation.     

Illuminating neural circuits and behaviour in Caenorhabditis elegans with optogenetics

The development of optogenetics, a family of methods for using light to control neural activity via light-sensitive proteins, has provided a powerful new set of tools for neurobiology. These techniques have been particularly fruitful for dissecting neural circuits and behaviour in the compact and transparent roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. Researchers have used optogenetic reagents to manipulate numerous excitable cell types in the worm, from sensory neurons, to interneurons, to motor neurons and muscles. Here, we show how optogenetics applied to this transparent roundworm has contributed to our understanding of neural circuits.     

Dual Color Neural Activation and Behavior Control with Chrimson and CoChR in Caenorhabditis elegans

By enabling a tight control of cell excitation, optogenetics is a powerful approach to study the function of neurons and neural circuits. With its transparent body, a fully mapped nervous system, easily quantifiable behaviors and many available genetic tools, Caenorhabditis elegans is an extremely well-suited model to decipher the functioning logic of the nervous system with optogenetics. Our goal was to establish an efficient dual color optogenetic system for the independent excitation of different neurons in C. elegans. We combined two recently discovered channelrhodopsins: the red-light sensitive Chrimson from Chlamydomonas noctigama and the blue-light sensitive CoChR from Chloromonas oogama. Codon-optimized versions of Chrimson and CoChR were designed for C. elegans and expressed in different mechanosensory neurons. Freely moving animals produced robust behavioral responses to light stimuli of specific wavelengths. Since CoChR was five times more sensitive to blue light than the commonly used ChR2, we were able to use low blue light intensities producing no cross-activation of Chrimson. Thanks to these optogenetics tools, we revealed asymmetric cross-habituation effects between the gentle and harsh touch sensory motor pathways. Collectively, our results establish the Chrimson/CoChR pair as a potent tool for bimodal neural excitation in C. elegans and equip this genetic model organism for the next generation of in vivo optogenetic analyses.     

The optogenetic (r)evolution

Optogenetics is a rapidly evolving field of technology that allows optical control of genetically targeted biological systems at high temporal and spatial resolution. By heterologous expression of light-sensitive microbial membrane proteins, opsins, cell type-specific depolarization or silencing can be optically induced on a millisecond time scale. What started in a petri dish is applicable today to more complex systems, ranging from the dissection of brain circuitries in vitro to behavioral analyses in freely moving animals. Persistent technical improvement has focused on the identification of new opsins, suitable for optogenetic purposes and genetic engineering of existing ones. Optical stimulation can be combined with various readouts defined by the desired resolution of the experimental setup. Although recent developments in optogenetics have largely focused on neuroscience it has lately been extended to other targets, including stem cell research and regenerative medicine. Further development of optogenetic approaches will not only highly increase our insight into health and disease states but might also pave the way for a future use in therapeutic applications.     

Enhancement of the long-wavelength sensitivity of optogenetic microbial rhodopsins by 3,4-dehydroretinal

Electrogenic microbial rhodopsins (ion pumps and channelrhodopsins) are widely used to control the activity of neurons and other cells by light (optogenetics). Long-wavelength absorption by optogenetic tools is desirable for increasing the penetration depth of the stimulus light by minimizing tissue scattering and absorption by hemoglobin. A2 retinal (3,4-dehydroretinal) is a natural retinoid that serves as the chromophore in red-shifted visual pigments of several lower aquatic animals. Here we show that A2 retinal reconstitutes a fully functional archaerhodopsin-3 (AR-3) proton pump and four channelrhodopsin variants (CrChR1, CrChR2, CaChR1, and MvChR1). Substitution of A1 with A2 retinal significantly shifted the spectral sensitivity of all tested rhodopsins to longer wavelengths without altering other aspects of their function. The spectral shift upon substitution of A1 with A2 in AR-3 was close to that measured in other archaeal rhodopsins. Notably, the shifts in channelrhodopsins were larger than those measured in archaeal rhodopsins and close to those in animal visual pigments with similar absorption maxima of their A1-bound forms. Our results show that chromophore substitution provides a complementary strategy for improving the efficiency of optogenetic tools.     

Synapses in the spotlight with synthetic optogenetics

Membrane receptors and ion channels respond to various stimuli and relay that information across the plasma membrane by triggering specific and timed processes. These include activation of second messengers, allowing ion permeation, and changing cellular excitability, to name a few. Gaining control over equivalent processes is essential to understand neuronal physiology and pathophysiology. Recently, new optical techniques have emerged proffering new remote means to control various functions of defined neuronal populations by light, dubbed optogenetics. Still, optogenetic tools do not typically address the activity of receptors and channels native to neurons (or of neuronal origin), nor gain access to their signaling mechanisms. A related method—synthetic optogenetics—bridges this gap by endowing light sensitivity to endogenous neuronal receptors and channels by the appending of synthetic, light‐receptive molecules, or photoswitches. This provides the means to photoregulate neuronal receptors and channels and tap into their native signaling mechanisms in select regions of the neurons, such as the synapse. This review discusses the development of synthetic optogenetics as a means to study neuronal receptors and channels remotely, in their natural environment, with unprecedented spatial and temporal precision, and provides an overview of tool design, mode of action, potential clinical applications and insights and achievements gained.