挪威南部地区蚁形郭公虫(Thanasimus formicarius)生活史(英文)

在自然和实验条件下,对蚁形郭公虫（Thanasimusformiyarius（L）生活史及有关生物学进行了研究。基于逐月野外调查结果,报道了蚁形郭公虫群飞期,以及该虫的卵、幼虫、蛹、预蛹和成虫等各发育阶段的历期。研究结果表明,蚁形郭公虫在挪威南部地区的生活史长达2年零4个月。在生活史的第1年里,该幼虫在受害的挪威云杉树基的蛹穴内越冬;成虫于次年羽化并逐步发育成熟。这些成虫将在树干裂缝中越冬,然后于第3年春产卵繁殖。研究揭示,在挪威南部地区,蚁形郭公虫的发生期与多种小蠹虫的危害期吻合。     

Prolonged development time of the bark beetle predator Thanasimus formicarius (Col.: Cleridae) in relation to its prey species Tomicus piniperda (L.) and Ips typographus (L.) (Col.: Scolytidae)

1 The generation time of the bark beetle predator Thanasimus formicarius (L.) (Col.: Cleridae) was found to be predominantly two years both in the field and in rearing experiments conducted with two of its main prey species, the pine shoot beetle Tomicus piniperda (L.) and the spruce bark beetle Ips typographus (L.) (Col.: Scolytidae). 2 Emergence of T. formicarius adults in the first summer was only observed in one of the two rearing experiments, and these individuals represented only 6% of that generation. 3 All individuals not emerging as adults in the first summer remained as larvae in their pupal chambers until the second summer. Pupae were found starting around mid-June, and adults (in pupal chambers) were found from late July through to the end of August. 4 Newly emerged adults had to feed in order to survive hibernation. 5 The existence of T. formicarius races, specialized on certain bark beetle species and with phenologies matching their hosts, could not be demonstrated. After hibernation there was no difference in feeding activity, timing of egg-laying or proportion of egg-laying females between the T. formicarius adults reared as larvae on T. piniperda (flight period in April) and those reared as larvae on I. typographus (main flight period generally starting in late May or early June) when exposed to a temperature and day-length typical of the early spring conditions prevailing during the flight period of T. piniperda. 6 T. formicarius was parasitized by Enclisis vindex (Tschek) (Hym.: Ichneumonidae) in the pupal chamber. 7 The importance of these findings for the population dynamics of bark beetles is discussed.     

The influence of natural enemies on brood production inIps typographus (Col. scolytidae) with special reference to egg-laying and predation byThanasimus formicarius (Col.: Cleridae)

The predatorThanasimus formicarius (L.) (Coleoptera, Cleridae) and its preyIps typographus (L.) (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) were studied in the laboratory and the field. In the laboratory, 11T. formicarius laid 71–132 eggs (mean=162) during 66–123 days. During this time they ate 66–132I. typographus adults per pair (male +female). The number of eggs laid per female was not correlated with life span or the number ofIps eaten. In the field, predation byT. formicarius larvae and other natural enemies onI. typographus brood was studied in the last year of an outbreak. Caged and uncaged spruce bolts attacked byI. typographus were used, and pairs ofT. formicarius were released in the cages. The treatments were: uncaged bolts, caged bolts withoutT. formicarius, caged bolts with 4T. formicarius pairs, and caged bolts with 8T. formicarius pairs. The productivity ofI. typographus was highest in the caged bolts withoutT. formicarius (mean=4.5 offspring/female) and lowest in the uncaged bolts (mean=0.9 offspring/female). The density ofI. typographus galleries was similar in the different treatments. Hence, the variation in productivity between treatments could not have been due to differences in the levels of intraspecific competition. There was no difference in bark beetle productivity or density ofT. formicarius larvae between bolts with 4 pairs ofT. formicarius and bolts with 8 pairs (mean=2.5 offspring/female). This indicates that some kind of interference occurred betweenT. formicarius individuals (e.g. cannibalism) and that a maximum level of predation was reached. Predation by larvae ofMedetera spp. (Diptera, Dolichopodidae),Thanasimus spp. and other beetles, and parasitism by wasps (Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae) probably caused the low productivity in the uncaged bolts.      

Phenology and life history of the blowfly Calliphora vicina in stockfish production areas

Calliphora vicina Robineau‐Desvoidy (Diptera: Calliphoridae) causes yearly losses of 1–2 million Euros to the stockfish industry in Lofoten, Norway. To develop an efficient management program, knowledge of its life cycle and phenology in production areas is needed. Cohort studies in a simulated Lofoten climate showed that field abundance peaks of adults in early spring and midsummer can be explained by a cohort originating from stockfish and its subsequent generations. Laboratory simulations with normal, increased, and decreased Lofoten temperatures indicate that C. vicina overwinter as a mix of larvae, pupae, and adults, and a temperature change of ± 2 °C significantly influences reproductive timing, reproductive output, and female mortality. Flies originating from stockfish reproduced during the first summer when temperatures were increased 2 °C above normal. At lower temperatures, the reproductive investment was low or absent during the first summer and the adult flies entered the winter in a diapausing state. Most offspring produced during the first summer and autumn developed continuously without maternally induced diapause, pupated during the winter, and hatched in the early spring to co‐occur with their parent generation during stockfish production. Calliphora vicina showed flexibility in reproductive efforts and overwintering strategies. The high proportion of adults overwintering compared with the commonly used larval diapause strategy might be interpreted as an adaptation to exploit the stockfish resource. The majority of female C. vicina that cause damage to stockfish likely developed on fish dried the previous year, and a continuous year‐long trapping is recommended to decimate the population.     

Differences in photoperiod‐induced diapause plasticity among different populations of the bark beetle Ips typographus and its predator Thanasimus formicarius

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Specialization of the olfactory receptor cells in the bark beetleIps typographus and its predatorThanasimus formicarius to bark beetle pheromones and host tree volatiles

Summary Olfactory receptor cells of the spruce bark beetle,Ips typographus, and its predator, the clerid beetleThanasimus formicarius, were studied using electrophysiological techniques. Recordings were made of nerve impulses from single cells and of the summated receptor potential (electroantennogram).Information from bark beetle pheromones and host volatiles is detected by separate olfactory receptor cells inI. typographus. Those which detected bark beetle pheromones responded to only one key substance. Some receptor cells which responded to spruce bark volatiles were strongly activated by one of the synthetic host compounds tested. However, too few host compounds were tested to reach definite conclusions about the specialization of host odour cells. T. formicarius has evolved olfactory receptor cells for bark beetle pheromones. These have similar specificities (specialist types) to those of the bark beetles. Furthermore, the predator has olfactory receptor cells for many bark beetle pheromones. This indicates thatT. formicarius is able to detect and discriminate between many bark beetle species. No significant differences were found between prey and predator cells which responded to host volatiles.     

Natural enemies ofTomicus Piniperda andIps acuminatus (Col,scolytidae) onPinus sylvestris near orléans,france: Temporal occurrence and relative abundance,and notes on eight predatory species

Ips acuminatus (Gyllenhall) andTomicus piniperda (L.) were the main scolytid beetles in Scots pine,Pinus sylvestris L., outbreak areas near Orléans, France during 1978-1979.Ips acuminatus attacked thin-bark logs whileT. piniperda attacked thick-bark logs. More than 150 species of insects were associated with these scolytids. Forty-five species (31 predators and 14 parasitoids) were confirmed as natural enemies of bark beetles. Three predators were abundant:Thanasimus formicarius L. (Col.: Cleridae),Rhizophagus depressus (F.) (Col.: Rhizophagidae) andMedetera spp. (Dipt.: Dolichopodidae). The first two were especially frequent in galleries ofT. piniperda, whileMedetera spp. were more abundant in galleries ofI. acuminatus. The main parasitoids wereRhopalicus tutela (Walker) andR. brevicornis Thomson (Hym.: Pteromalidae),Coeloides abdominalis Zetterstedt andC. melanostigma Strand,Dendrosoter middendorfi Ratzeburg andD. hartigii Ratzeburg, andSpathius rubidus Rossi (Hym.: Braconidae). These parasitoids are polyphagous. However,C. abdominalis was obtained fromT. piniperda but not fromI. acuminatus, while 5.rubidus andD. hartigii were obtained fromI. acuminatus but not fromT. piniperda. Temporal and relative abundance of natural enemies ofT. piniperda andI. acuminatus were studied. The predatorsR. depressus andT. formicarius had complementary limiting effects on bark beetles as adults and larvae ofR. depressus fed mainly on scolytid eggs, whileT. formicarius adults attacked scolytid adults and the clerid larvae preyed upon scolytid larvae. The predatory pressure applied byT. formicarius andR. depressus toT. piniperda early during the spring was later complemented by a series of parasitoids and other predators. This sequential timing of the natural enemies ofT. piniperda suggests that the interactions among the guild are more complementary than adverse. Differential timing of the natural enemies in logs infested byI. acuminatus and some evidence of competition between the predatorsMedetera spp. and parasitoids suggested a less effective control of this scolytid. Number and duration of larval instars were determined, and measurements of predatory activity were made forThanasimus formicarius, Rhizophagus depressus,Hypophloeus fraxini Kugelann (Col.: Tenebrionidae),Platysoma frontale Paykull (Col.: Histeridae), andXylocoris cursitans (Fallen) (Het.: Anthocoridae). Predatory activity was evaluated for last instar larvae and adults ofScoloposcelis obscurella (Zetterstedt) (Het.: Anthocoridae), and for last instar larvae ofMedetera sp. andLonchaea collini Hackman (Dipt.: Lonchaeidae)     

Predation and bark beetle dynamics

Bark beetle populations may undergo dramatic fluctuations and are often important pests in coniferous forests. Their dynamics are thought to be primarily driven by factors affecting the resistance of the host tree to attack, i.e., bottom-up forces, while natural enemies are usually assigned a minor role in these systems. I present behavioral experiments that suggest that the clerid beetle Thanasimus dubius may be an important source of mortality for the bark beetle Dendroctonus frontalis during attack of the host tree, and determine the nature of the functional response of T. dubius under conditions close to natural. I also examine the numerical response of T. dubius to large-scale fluctuations in D. frontalis density, and the relationship between bark beetle population trends and predator density, and find that beetle populations tend to decline when predator densities are high. Combined with the effects of clerid larvae on bark beetle broods, these results suggest that top-down forces generated by natural enemies could also be an important component of bark beetle dynamics. The implications of these results for bark beetle dynamics are discussed in relation to the prolonged life-cycle of clerid beetles. Received: 23 January 1997 / Accepted: 5 April 1997     

Flight ability and reproductive development in newly‐emerged pine weevil Hylobius abietis and the potential effects of climate change

• 1 Adult pine weevils Hylobius abietis emerge from conifer root‐stumps, on which larvae develop, over an extended period during summer and autumn. Newly‐emerged weevils were tested for their ability to fly and assessed for wing muscle and reproductive development. In addition, the effect of summer–autumn maturation feeding on reproductive development was assessed in field bioassays.
• 2 There was considerable variation in development between newly‐emerged weevils that was related to the timing of emergence. The first weevils, emerging in early July, weighed less than later‐emerging ones, had undeveloped flight muscles and did not fly. Over the emergence period, wing muscle size and flight ability increased markedly, with 50–60% flying by mid‐September. Differences between emerging adults are likely to have been affected by temporal changes in the quality of the bark on which the larvae feed.
• 3 Reproductive development lagged behind that of wing muscles but, in early August, there was a rapid increase in the proportion of weevils with immature eggs and a corresponding increase in oocyte size. However, although wing muscles were fully formed in later‐emerging weevils, immature eggs were only approximately 10% of the volume of mature eggs.
• 4 In field bioassays of summer–autumn maturation feeding, eggs continued to develop and some weevils laid mature eggs. Feeding and development during the pre‐overwinter period is likely to influence winter survival and also dispersal and reproduction in the following spring.
• 5 The potential effects of climate change on the weevil life cycle are briefly discussed. Weevils are likely to benefit from the higher temperatures and later autumns predicted under climate change, resulting in an increase in damage to transplants.

     

斜纹拟木蠹蛾在广州发生的生物学特征

本文报道了斜纹拟木蠹蛾Indarbela obliquifasciata在广州的发生和为害特征,对其形态和生物学特征做了阐述,表明该虫在广州一年发生一代,其取食寄主达18种,但主要寄主植物为羊蹄甲,其幼虫共6龄并以幼虫越冬。并对该虫的防治提出了建议。     

Interactions between the phloem-feeding speciesTomicus piniperda (Col.: Scolytidae) andAcanthocinus aedilis (Col.: Cerambycidae), and the predatorThanasimus formicarius (Col.: Cleridae) with special reference to brood production

Interactions betweenTomicus piniperda (L.) (Col.: Scolytidae),Acanthocinus aedilis (L.) (Col.: Cerambycidae) andThanasimus formicarius (L.) (Col.: Cleridae) were investigated in caged pine bolts. The treatments wereT. piniperda alone,A. aedilis alone,T. piniperda together withA. aedilis, T. piniperda together withT. formicarius and all three species together. T. piniperda offspring production per m² was reduced by 92% when reared withT. formicarius, by 78% when reared withA. aedilis, and by 94% when all three species were reared together, compared withT. piniperda reared alone.A. aedilis had a negative influence on the offspring production ofT. formicarius and vice versa. When both species were present in the same bolt (together withT. piniperda) offspring production was reduced by 74% forA. aedilis and by 42% forT. formicarius compared with their respective production values when each species was present alone with the bark beetle. The new generation ofT. formicarius emerged as larvae from June to August while most of theA. aedilis offspring emerged as adults from September to October, leaving only a few larvae in the bolts to hibernate.A. aedilis only reproduced in a small part of one of the bolts without bark beetles.     

Artificial diet and rearing methods for Thanasimus dubius (Coleoptera: Cleridae), a predator of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

Clerid beetles are common natural enemies of bark beetles, and could potentially be used as biological control agents if they could be reared in sufficient numbers. We developed an artificial diet devoid of insect components for rearing Thanasimus dubius (Fabricius), a clerid that attacks several economically important bark beetles in eastern North America. We reared larvae of this predator using the artificial diet, and then used either natural or factitious prey to feed the adults so produced. Two different methods of presenting the diet were also examined. We then compared the performance of T. dubius reared on the artificial diet with newly-emerged wild individuals collected from the field. Our results suggest that adult predators reared on the diet are near in quality to wild ones, and high R₀ values can be obtained. No difference in prey preference was found between wild and diet-reared individuals after five generations in the laboratory. Sufficient numbers of predators could be generated using these techniques to permit limited field trials of augmentative biological control.     

Field response of non‐target beetles to Ips sexdentatus aggregation pheromone and pine volatiles

Although mass trapping cannot be a definitive control measure, it is one of the few ones available to contain the destruction of millions of cubic metres of conifer forests perpetrated every year worldwide by bark beetles. However, using bark beetle aggregation pheromones during both monitoring and control programs may negatively affect other saproxylic insects. The aim of this study was to describe the response of both Ips sexdentatus and its saproxylic beetle associates, especially predators, to traps baited with a commercial blend of I. sexdentatus aggregation pheromone. Furthermore, the usefulness of adding pine volatiles, such as (?)‐α‐pinene and ethanol, to the pheromone was discussed. The commercial blend proved to be attractive to I. sexdentatus adults, both when used alone and together with pine volatiles. Pheromone attractiveness, however, was lessened by the addition of the volatiles. The pheromone blend proved to be attractive to Thanasimus formicarius, as well as to other predator species. Overall, although during our study, traps baited only with (?)‐α‐pinene and ethanol attracted some predator specimens, I. sexdentatus pheromone traps were more attractive. Our study confirms that calendar differences in flight activity between the bark beetle and its predators are substantial; therefore, they should be taken into account when planning control measures. According to our data, the commercial blend of I. sexdentatus pheromone seems to be the most effective, among the baits used, in catching I. sexdentatus adults, while reducing the impact on T. formicarius.     

First record of a walnut shield bearer Coptodisca (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae) in Europe

A leafminer of the Nearctic genus Coptodisca Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae), a species of potential economic interest, is reported for the first time from Europe, infesting the black (Juglans nigra L.) and the common walnut (Juglans regia L.). Mines were collected since September of 2010 in several sites of two Italian regions (Campania and Lazio). The species is rather similar to Coptodisca juglandella (Chambers), the only Coptodisca known to attack walnuts, but at present, an unambiguous identification cannot be provided because of the unsatisfactory characterization of this leafminer and congeneric species. Three generations were recorded per year and leafminers overwinter as mature larvae. The first adults emerged in May–June while mature larvae of the last generation started the overwintering in September. During the last generation of the year, infestation levels of leaves were 100% in all sampled localities. Several species of parasitoids were reared from infested mines, with specimens belonging to the genus Chrysocharis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) being the most frequent parasitoids.     

Influence of breeding conditions on longevity and fecundity ofRaphitelus maculatus [Hym.: Pteromalidae] reared under standard laboratory conditions

The rearing ofRaphitelus maculatus Walker, which oviposits through the bark onto beetle larvae has been carry out under standard laboratory conditions of 22 ± 2°C, 60% R.H. and photoperiod 16L∶8D. The host (Phloeotribus scarabaeoides Bernard) has been reared by cutting fresh branches of living olive tree on which they overwinter as adults. The effect of several rearing conditions (feeding conditions) on longevity and fecundity has been tested. The time of parasitoid and host development as well as the periods of emergence from the infested cut branches has been determined. It has been noted that both longevity and fecundity are influenced by the feeding conditions, reaching toca. double value when parasitoids were fully fed. Under standard rearing conditionsR. maculatus completes its life cycle in 17–18 days depending on sex, whereasP. scarabaeoides takes about 48 days. Finally 3 emergence periods has been observed from which the 1^st is the most important and the 3^rd is always the less significantly one, provided that the emerging brood cannot oviposits easier than the parents due to a decrease on host larvae proportion as well as on parasitoid fecundity.      

Epizootiology of Amblyospora connecticus (Microsporida) in Field Populations of the Saltmarsh Mosquito, Aedes cantator, and the Cyclopoid Copepod, Acanthocyclops vernalis

The natural ecology of a heterosporous microsporidium, Amblyospora connecticus was investigated at three different salt marsh habitats during 1986–1989. The parasite has a well-defined seasonal transmission cycle that occurs regularly each year and intimately involves the primary mosquito host, Aedes cantator, and the intermediate copepod host, Acanthocyclops vernalis. In the spring, the microsporidium is horizontally transmitted from the copepod, where it appears to overwinter, to the mosquito via the ingestion of haploid spores produced in the copepod. Mosquitoes develop a benign infection, and females transmit the microsporidium transovarially to their progeny via infected eggs. Oviposition occurs during the summer and infected eggs hatch synchronously in the fall causing widespread epizootics. Infected larvae die, and the cycle is completed when meiospores are released into the pool and subsequently are eaten by A. vernalis, which reappears in the fall and early winter. Amblyospora connecticus thereby persists by surviving in one of two living hosts throughout most of its life cycle rather than in the extra-corporeal environment. This represents an important survival strategy for A. connecticus as results show the salt marsh habitat to be a relatively unstable environment that is subject to periodic flooding and drying. The adaptive significance of utilizing an intermediate host in the life cycle is discussed as it directly facilitates transmission and enhances survival of the microsporidium.     

Life cycle and abundance oflongitarsus jacobaeae [Col.: Chrysomelidae], biocontrol agent ofSenecio jacobaea

The life cycle and abundance of the tansy ragwort flea beetle,Longitarsus jacobaeae (Waterhouse), were investigated in a dune area in the Netherlands. The beetle overwinters in the egg stage, which is parasitised by a Mymarid wasp. No larvae were found until spring. Three larval instars can be separated by head capsule size and coloration. Initial larval numbers are high (up to 214 larvae per plant), but drop to very low levels by late spring. Adults appear during June or July, the numbers are high until October, the adults can be found until the end of December. This life cycle differs remarkably from those described for the species in Switzerland, Italy and Britain. Possible causes for these differences are discussed, as well as implications for the use ofLongitarsus in biological control.      

Zooplankton in Loch Lomond: perspectives,predation and powan

Published and unpublished accounts of the zooplankton community of Loch Lomond are reviewed. Loch Lomond's zooplankton community is unique amongst those of Scotland's other large lochs. Holopedium gibberum appeared in Loch Lomond in the years between the studies of Slack & Hamilton in the 1950s and zooplankton surveys in the late 1970s.The annual cycles of Eudiaptomus gracilis, Cyclops strenuus abyssorum and Mesocyclops leuckarti are described for the mid basin of Loch Lomond. E. gracilis overwinter mainly as adult with variable egg production during their lifespan of 5–8 months. The cyclopoid copepods have variable life history characteristics. C. str. abyssorum produce a single generation per year, overwinter by means of resting eggs and a small population of planktonic adults, while M. leuckarti is present in the plankton throughout the year, but in low numbers during winter.Zooplankton populations in Loch Lomond are predated by the diverse fish community which includes a facultative planktivore in the powan, Coregonus lavaretus. Powan feed heavily on zooplankton from late spring until late autumn. Powan display selectivity in the prey species taken, in the size distribution and morph types taken within prey species. Zooplankton species, morphs and forms in Loch Lomond tend to reflect this predation.Zoology Department, University of St. AndrewsZoology Department, University of St. Andrews     

Life history of the Asian longhorn beetle Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera Cerambycidae) in southern Europe

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Influence of low temperature on pupation induction in Costelytra zealandica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Costelytra zealandica (White) lives within the soil throughout its life cycle, except for brief, crepuscular excursions to the surface by the adults to mate and feed. Larvae collected more than 18 weeks before 50% field pupation did not pupate unless they were artificially chilled. Such chilling had no significant effect on the percentage pupation of larvae collected after this time; it is assumed that these larvae had received sufficient chilling from their environment to induce pupation. Larger larvae were more likely to pupate than smaller larvae during the period 13–7 weeks before 50% field pupation. It is postulated that larvae remain quiescent until the soil temperature increases in the spring, and pupate only then. Such a process would explain how the adults of a population emerge at about the same time.