Invasive moss alters patterns in life-history traits and functional diversity of spiders and carabids

Invasive plants can modify terrestrial habitats and affect the natural faunal composition. In acidic coastal dunes the invasive moss Campylopus introflexus can form dense carpets that largely replace native vegetation. As shown in a previous study, moss invasion affects habitat structure and ground-dwelling arthropod diversity. We suggested that including the functional diversity concept in the analysis of moss invasion impacts may offer further insights. We used pitfall trap data to compare trait composition and functional diversity of spiders and carabids in (a) invaded, moss-rich (C. introflexus) and (b) native, lichen-rich (Cladonia spp.) acidic coastal dunes. Moss invasion induced shifts in the trait values body size and feeding preference (carabids) and hunting mode (spiders): Species were smaller in native sites, and the percentages of web-building spiders and phytophagous beetles were reduced in invaded sites. Furthermore, moss invasion led to a more heterogeneous trait composition for spiders, and changed functional diversity of both arthropod groups, although with the opposite effects: While spiders were functionally more diverse in invaded sites, moss invasion reduced carabid beetles’ functional diversity. We also observed changes in the relationship between species richness and functional diversity that indicate a high functional similarity for spiders but a lower one for carabid beetles in native grey dunes. C. introflexus invasion not only alters the arthropod diversity and assemblage structure of endangered acidic coastal dunes but also interferes at a functional level. These results provide further insight into the way plant invasions might alter the structure and function of ecosystems.     

Two Invasive Plants Alter Soil Microbial Community Composition in Serpentine Grasslands

Plant invasions pose a serious threat to native ecosystem structure and function. However, little is known about the potential role that rhizosphere soil microbial communities play in facilitating or resisting the spread of invasive species into native plant communities. The objective of this study was to compare the microbial communities of invasive and native plant rhizospheres in serpentine soils. We compared rhizosphere microbial communities, of two invasive species, Centaurea solstitialis (yellow starthistle) and Aegilops triuncialis (barb goatgrass), with those of five native species that may be competitively affected by these invasive species in the field (Lotus wrangelianus, Hemizonia congesta, Holocarpha virgata, Plantago erecta, and Lasthenia californica). Phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA) was used to compare the rhizosphere microbial communities of invasive and native plants. Correspondence analyses (CA) of PLFA data indicated that despite yearly variation, both starthistle and goatgrass appear to change microbial communities in areas they invade, and that invaded and native microbial communities significantly differ. Additionally, rhizosphere microbial communities in newly invaded areas are more similar to the original native soil communities than are microbial communities in areas that have been invaded for several years. Compared to native plant rhizospheres, starthistle and goatgrass rhizospheres have higher levels of PLFA biomarkers for sulfate reducing bacteria, and goatgrass rhizospheres have higher fatty acid diversity and higher levels of biomarkers for sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Changes in soil microbial community composition induced by plant invasion may affect native plant fitness and/or ecosystem function.     

Impacts of a woody invader vary in different vegetation communities

The impact of an exotic species in natural systems may be dependent not only on invader attributes but also on characteristics of the invaded community. We examined impacts of the invader bitou bush, Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata , in fore and hind dune communities of coastal New South Wales, Australia. We compared invader impacts on vegetation structure, richness of both native and exotic growth forms and community variability in fore and hind dunes. We found that impacts of bitou invasion were context specific: in fore dune shrublands, functionally distinct graminoid, herb and climber rather than shrub growth forms had significantly reduced species richness following bitou invasion. However, in forested hind dunes, the functionally similar native shrub growth form had significantly reduced species richness following bitou invasion. Density of vegetation structure increased at the shrub level in both fore and hind dune invaded communities compared with non-invaded communities. Fore dune ground-level vegetation density declined at invaded sites compared with non-invaded sites, reflecting significant reductions in herb and graminoid species richness. Hind dune canopy-level vegetation density was reduced at invaded compared with non-invaded sites. Bitou bush invasion also affected fore dune community variability with significant increases in variability of species abundances observed in invaded compared with non-invaded sites. In contrast, variability among all hind dune sites was similar. The results suggest that effects of bitou bush invasion are mediated by the vegetation community. When bitou bush becomes abundant, community structure and functioning may be compromised.     

Effects of Bromus tectorum invasion on microbial carbon and nitrogen cycling in two adjacent undisturbed arid grassland communities

Soil nitrogen (N) is an important component in maintaining ecosystem stability, and the introduction of non-native plants can alter N cycling by changing litter quality and quantity, nutrient uptake patterns, and soil food webs. Our goal was to determine the effects of Bromus tectorum (C₃) invasion on soil microbial N cycling in adjacent non-invaded and invaded C₃ and C₄ native arid grasslands. We monitored resin-extractable N, plant and soil δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N, gross rates of inorganic N mineralization and consumption, and the quantity and isotopic composition of microbial phospholipid biomarkers. In invaded C₃ communities, labile soil organic N and gross and net rates of soil N transformations increased, indicating an increase in overall microbial N cycling. In invaded C₄ communities labile soil N stayed constant, but gross N flux rates increased. The δ¹³C of phospholipid biomarkers in invaded C₄ communities showed that some portion of the soil bacterial population preferentially decomposed invader C₃-derived litter over that from the native C₄ species. Invasion in C₄ grasslands also significantly decreased the proportion of fungal to bacterial phospholipid biomarkers. Different processes are occurring in response to B. tectorum invasion in each of these two native grasslands that: 1) alter the size of soil N pools, and/or 2) the activity of the microbial community. Both processes provide mechanisms for altering long-term N dynamics in these ecosystems and highlight how multiple mechanisms can lead to similar effects on ecosystem function, which may be important for the construction of future biogeochemical process models.     

Disconnect of microbial structure and function: enzyme activities and bacterial communities in nascent stream corridors

A fundamental issue in microbial and general ecology is the question to what extent environmental conditions dictate the structure of communities and the linkages with functional properties of ecosystems (that is, ecosystem function). We approached this question by taking advantage of environmental gradients established in soil and sediments of small stream corridors in a recently created, early successional catchment. Specifically, we determined spatial and temporal patterns of bacterial community structure and their linkages with potential microbial enzyme activities along the hydrological flow paths of the catchment. Soil and sediments were sampled in a total of 15 sites on four occasions spread throughout a year. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was used to characterize bacterial communities, and substrate analogs linked to fluorescent molecules served to track 10 different enzymes as specific measures of ecosystem function. Potential enzyme activities varied little among sites, despite contrasting environmental conditions, especially in terms of water availability. Temporal changes, in contrast, were pronounced and remarkably variable among the enzymes tested. This suggests much greater importance of temporal dynamics than spatial heterogeneity in affecting specific ecosystem functions. Most strikingly, bacterial community structure revealed neither temporal nor spatial patterns. The resulting disconnect between bacterial community structure and potential enzyme activities indicates high functional redundancy within microbial communities even in the physically and biologically simplified stream corridors of early successional landscapes.     

PCR-DGGE Comparison of Bacterial Community Structure in Fresh and Archived Soils Sampled along a Chihuahuan Desert Elevational Gradient

The polymerase chain reaction coupled with denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) has been used widely to determine species richness and structure of microbial communities in a variety of environments. Researchers commonly archive soil samples after routine chemical or microbial analyses, and applying PCR-DGGE technology to these historical samples offers evaluation of long-term patterns in bacterial species richness and community structure that was not available with previous technology. However, use of PCR-DGGE to analyze microbial communities of archived soils has been largely unexplored. To evaluate the stability of DGGE patterns in archived soils in comparison with fresh soils, fresh and archived soils from five sites along an elevational gradient in the Chihuahuan Desert were compared using PCR-DGGE of 16S rDNA. DNA from all archived samples was extracted reliably, but DNA in archived soils collected from a closed-canopy oak forest site could not be amplified. DNA extraction yields were lower for most archived soils, but minimal changes in bacterial species richness and structure due to archiving were noted in bacterial community profiles from four sites. Use of archived soils to determine long-term changes in bacterial community structure via PCR-DGGE appears to be a viable option for addressing microbial community dynamics for particular ecosystems or landscapes.     

A Coexisting Fungal-Bacterial Community Stabilizes Soil Decomposition Activity in a Microcosm Experiment

How diversity influences the stability of a community function is a major question in ecology. However, only limited empirical investigations of the diversity–stability relationship in soil microbial communities have been undertaken, despite the fundamental role of microbial communities in driving carbon and nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, we conducted a microcosm experiment to investigate the relationship between microbial diversity and stability of soil decomposition activities against changes in decomposition substrate quality by manipulating microbial community using selective biocides. We found that soil respiration rates and degradation enzyme activities by a coexisting fungal and bacterial community (a taxonomically diverse community) are more stable against changes in substrate quality (plant leaf materials) than those of a fungi-dominated or a bacteria-dominated community (less diverse community). Flexible changes in the microbial community composition and/or physiological state in the coexisting community against changes in substrate quality, as inferred by the soil lipid profile, may be the mechanism underlying this positive diversity–stability relationship. Our experiment demonstrated that the previously found positive diversity–stability relationship could also be valid in the soil microbial community. Our results also imply that the functional/taxonomic diversity and community ecology of soil microbes should be incorporated into the context of climate–ecosystem feedbacks. Changes in substrate quality, which could be induced by climate change, have impacts on decomposition process and carbon dioxide emission from soils, but such impacts may be attenuated by the functional diversity of soil microbial communities.     

紫茎泽兰入侵对土壤细菌的群落组成和多样性的影响

外来生物入侵可能对生物群落结构和生态系统功能产生多种影响, 但入侵植物与土壤微生物群落组成和多样性的关系尚不清楚。为了揭示外来植物紫茎泽兰(Eupatorium adenophorum)入侵对土壤化学性质和细菌群落组成及多样性的影响, 本研究利用第二代高通量测序技术, 比较了紫茎泽兰不同入侵程度的生境(本地植物群落、紫茎泽兰与本地植物混生群落、紫茎泽兰单优群落)土壤中细菌群落的差异。土壤化学性质分析表明, 土壤pH值、有机质、全N和全K随着紫茎泽兰的入侵而逐渐降低, 而土壤全P则在入侵程度最高的生境土壤中最高。通过测序共获得7,755个细菌OUT (operational taxonomic unit)。结果表明, 紫茎泽兰入侵对土壤的细菌多样性影响较小, ACE和Chao指数在3种不同生境间的差异不显著。细菌在紫茎泽兰与本地植物混生群落中的Shannon指数最低, 即细菌的多样性在中等入侵程度的生境最低。此外, 紫茎泽兰入侵改变了土壤细菌组成和结构, 酸杆菌门(Acidobacteria)和疣微菌门(Verrucomicrobia)的相对丰度, 从本地植物群落、混合群落到紫茎泽兰单优群落, 呈现出先增加后减少的趋势。可见, 紫茎泽兰入侵一定程度上改变了土壤微生物的多样性和群落结构, 并改变了土壤的化学性质。     

Effects of fertilization on bacterial community structure and function in a black soil of Dehui region estimated by Biolog and PCR-DGGE methods

Soil microbial community structure and function are commonly used as indicators for soil quality and fertility. In this paper, the bacterial community structure and function in a black soil of Dehui region influenced by fertilization were investigated by Biolog and PCR-DGGE (polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) methods. Biolog examination showed that substrate richness and catabolic diversities of bacterial communities were the highest in the treatment of farm yard manure, and the lowest in the chemical fertilizer treatment. DGGE fingerprint showed that the majority of bands were similar among all treatments, suggesting that microbial communities with those bands were stable, and not influenced by fertilization. In general, chemical fertilizer decreased the diversity of soil bacterial communities. The PCA (principal component analysis) plots of Biolog and DGGE revealed that the structure and function of bacterial communities were similar in the non-fertilized control and the treatment of farm yard manure alone, which inferred that the application of farm yard manure increased the quantity of soil microbes but had less effect on the changes of community structure. The catabolic function was similar, but the composition structure differed between the treatments of chemical fertilizer alone and combined application of farm yard manure with chemical fertilizer. These results suggest that the use of chemical fertilizer mainly decreased the catabolic activity of the fast growth bacteria or eutrophic bacteria.     

The Effects of Soil Bacterial Community Structure on Decomposition in a Tropical Rain Forest

Soil microorganisms are key drivers of terrestrial biogeochemical cycles, yet it is still unclear how variations in soil microbial community composition influence many ecosystem processes. We investigated how shifts in bacterial community composition and diversity resulting from differences in carbon (C) availability affect organic matter decomposition by conducting an in situ litter manipulation experiment in a tropical rain forest in Costa Rica. We used bar-coded pyrosequencing to characterize soil bacterial community composition in litter manipulation plots and performed a series of laboratory incubations to test the potential functional significance of community shifts on organic matter decomposition. Despite clear effects of the litter manipulation on soil bacterial community composition, the treatments had mixed effects on microbial community function. Distinct communities varied in their ability to decompose a wide range of C compounds, and functional differences were related to both the relative abundance of the two most abundant bacterial sub-phyla (Acidobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria) and to variations in bacterial alpha-diversity. However, distinct communities did not differ in their ability to decompose native dissolved organic matter (DOM) substrates that varied in quality and quantity. Our results show that although resource-driven shifts in soil bacterial community composition have the potential to influence decomposition of specific C substrates, those differences may not translate to differences in DOM decomposition rates in situ. Taken together, our results suggest that soil bacterial communities may be either functionally dissimilar or equivalent during decomposition depending on the nature of the organic matter being decomposed.     

The impact of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carpobrotus</Emphasis> cfr. <Emphasis Type="Italic">acinaciformis</Emphasis> (L.) L. Bolus on soil nutrients,microbial communities structure and native plant communities in Mediterranean ecosystems

Background and aims

Carpobrotus spp. are amongst the most impactful and widespread plant invaders of Mediterranean habitats. Despite the negative ecological impacts on soil and vegetation that have been documented, information is still limited about the effect by Carpobrotus on soil microbial communities. We aimed to assess the changes in the floristic, soil and microbial parameters following the invasion by Carpobrotus cfr. acinaciformis within an insular Mediterranean ecosystem.

Methods

Within three study areas a paired-site approach, comparing an invaded vs. a non-invaded plot, was established. Within each plot biodiversity indexes, C and N soil content, pH and microbial biomass and structure (bacterial and fungal) were assessed.

Results

Invaded plots showed a decrease of α-species richness and diversity. The least represented plant species in invaded plots were those related to grassland habitats. In all invaded soils, a significant increase of carbon and nitrogen content and a significant decrease of pH were registered. Carpobrotus significantly increased bacterial and fungal biomass and altered soil microbial structure, particularly favoring fungal growth.

Conclusions

Carpobrotus may deeply impact edaphic properties and microbial communities and, in turn, these strong modifications probably increase its invasive potential and its ability to overcome native species, by preventing their natural regeneration.

     

Comparison of soil microbial communities inhabiting vineyards and native sclerophyllous forests in central Chile

Natural ecosystems provide services to agriculture such as pest control, soil nutrients, and key microbial components. These services and others in turn provide essential elements that fuel biomass productivity. Responsible agricultural management and conservation of natural habitats can enhance these ecosystem services. Vineyards are currently driving land‐use changes in many Mediterranean ecosystems. These land‐use changes could have important effects on the supporting ecosystems services related to the soil properties and the microbial communities associated with forests and vineyard soils. Here, we explore soil bacterial and fungal communities present in sclerophyllous forests and organic vineyards from three different wine growing areas in central Chile. We employed terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms (T‐RFLP) to describe the soil microbial communities inhabiting native forests and vineyards in central Chile. We found that the bacterial community changed between the sampled growing areas; however, the fungal community did not differ. At the local scale, our findings show that fungal communities differed between habitats because fungi species might be more sensitive to land‐use change compared to bacterial species, as bacterial communities did not change between forests and vineyards. We discuss these findings based on the sensitivity of microbial communities to soil properties and land‐use change. Finally, we focus our conclusions on the importance of naturally derived ecosystem services to vineyards.     

Functional substitutability of native herbivores by livestock for soil carbon stock is mediated by microbial decomposers

Grazing by large mammalian herbivores impacts climate as it can favor the size and stability of a large carbon (C) pool in the soils of grazing ecosystems. As native herbivores in the world's grasslands, steppes, and savannas are progressively being displaced by livestock, it is important to ask whether livestock can emulate the functional roles of their native counterparts. While livestock and native herbivores can have remarkable similarity in their traits, they can differ greatly in their impacts on vegetation composition which can affect soil-C. It is uncertain how these similarities and differences impact soil-C via their influence on microbial decomposers. We test competing alternative hypotheses with a replicated, long-term, landscape-level, grazing-exclusion experiment to ask whether livestock in the Trans-Himalayan ecosystem of northern India can match decadal-scale (2005–2016) soil-C stocks under native herbivores. We evaluate multiple lines of evidence from 17 variables that influence soil-C (quantity and quality of C-input from plants, microbial biomass and metabolism, microbial community composition, eDNA, veterinary antibiotics in soil), and assess their inter-relationships. Livestock and native herbivores differed in their effects on several soil microbial processes. Microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE) was 19% lower in soils under livestock. Compared to native herbivores, areas used by livestock contained 1.5 kg C m⁻² less soil-C. Structural equation models showed that alongside the effects arising from plants, livestock alter soil microbial communities which is detrimental for CUE, and ultimately also for soil-C. Supporting evidence pointed toward a link between veterinary antibiotics used on livestock, microbial communities, and soil-C. Overcoming the challenges of sequestering antibiotics to minimize their potential impacts on climate, alongside microbial rewilding under livestock, may reconcile the conflicting demands from food-security and ecosystem services. Conservation of native herbivores and alternative management of livestock is crucial for soil-C stewardship to envision and achieve natural climate solutions.     

Effects of an invasive cattail species (Typha x glauca) on sediment nitrogen and microbial community composition in a freshwater wetland

Sediments from Cheboygan Marsh, a coastal freshwater wetland on Lake Huron that has been invaded by an emergent exotic plant, Typhaxglauca, were examined to assess the effects of invasion on wetland nutrient levels and sediment microbial communities. Comparison of invaded and uninvaded zones of the marsh indicated that the invaded zone showed significantly lower plant diversity, as well as significantly higher aboveground plant biomass and soil organic matter. The sediments in the invaded zone also showed dramatically higher concentrations of soluble nutrients, including greater than 10-fold higher soluble ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate, which suggests that Typhaxglauca invasion may be impacting the wetland's ability to remove nutrients. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses revealed significant differences in the composition of total bacterial communities (based on 16S-rRNA genes) and denitrifier communities (based on nirS genes) between invaded and uninvaded zones. This shift in denitrifiers in the sediments may be ecologically significant due to the critical role that denitrifying bacteria play in removal of nitrogen by wetlands.     

Organic Layer Serves as a Hotspot of Microbial Activity and Abundance in Arctic Tundra Soils

Tundra ecosystem is of importance for its high accumulation of organic carbon and vulnerability to future climate change. Microorganisms play a key role in carbon dynamics of the tundra ecosystem by mineralizing organic carbon. We assessed both ecosystem process rates and community structure of Bacteria, Archaea, and Fungi in different soil layers (surface organic layer and subsurface mineral soil) in an Arctic soil ecosystem located at Spitsbergen, Svalbard during the summer of 2008 by using biochemical and molecular analyses, such as enzymatic assay, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP), quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and pyrosequencing. Activity of hydrolytic enzymes showed difference according to soil type. For all three microbial communities, the average gene copy number did not significantly differ between soil types. However, archaeal diversities appeared to differ according to soil type, whereas bacterial and fungal diversity indices did not show any variation. Correlation analysis between biogeochemical and microbial parameters exhibited a discriminating pattern according to microbial or soil types. Analysis of the microbial community structure showed that bacterial and archaeal communities have different profiles with unique phylotypes in terms of soil types. Water content and hydrolytic enzymes were found to be related with the structure of bacterial and archaeal communities, whereas soil organic matter (SOM) and total organic carbon (TOC) were related with bacterial communities. The overall results of this study indicate that microbial enzyme activity were generally higher in the organic layer than in mineral soils and that bacterial and archaeal communities differed between the organic layer and mineral soils in the Arctic region. Compared to mineral soil, peat-covered organic layer may represent a hotspot for secondary productivity and nutrient cycling in this ecosystem.     

Forest gene diversity is correlated with the composition and function of soil microbial communities

The growing field of community and ecosystem genetics indicates that plant genotype and genotypic variation are important for structuring communities and ecosystem processes. Little is known, however, regarding the effects of stand gene diversity on soil communities and processes under field conditions. Utilizing natural genetic variation occurring in Populus spp. hybrid zones, we tested the hypothesis that stand gene diversity structures soil microbial communities and influences soil nutrient pools. We found significant unimodal patterns relating gene diversity to soil microbial community composition, microbial exoenzyme activity of a carbon-acquiring enzyme, and availability of soil nitrogen. Multivariate analyses indicate that this pattern is due to the correlation between gene diversity, plant secondary chemistry, and the composition of the microbial community that impacts the availability of soil nitrogen. Together, these data from a natural system indicate that stand gene diversity may affect soil microbial communities and soil processes in ways similar to species diversity (i.e., unimodal patterns). Our results further demonstrate that the effects of plant genetic diversity on other organisms may be mediated by plant functional trait variation.     

Impact of Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Pisces: Cichlidae) invasion on taxonomic and functional diversity of native fish species in the upper Kabompo River,northwest of Zambia

Invasive alien species have been revealed to drastically alter the structure of native communities; however, there is scarce information on whether taxonomic and functional spaces occupied by native species are equally filled by exotic species. We investigated the diversity of native species to understand the impact of exotic Oreochromis niloticus in the upper Kabompo River, northwest of Zambia using taxonomic and functional diversity indices. To achieve this, two tests were performed (Test 1, compared natives in invaded and uninvaded sections; Test 2, compared natives in invaded section). A total of 17 species were collected for functional diversity computation, out of which fourteen (14) functional trait measurements linked to feeding, locomotion, and life history strategy were taken. Findings revealed that taxonomic and functional diversity values changed with invasion in both tests. Taxonomic diversity was 15% more in invaded than uninvaded sections in Test 1 and was not consistent across sampling points of invaded section in Test 2. Invaded areas were taxonomically less diverse, but functionally diverse in both tests. The analysis of similarity and nonmetric multidimensional scaling revealed no difference in Bray–Curtis similarity assemblages in both tests. Our findings revealed that exotic species more often occupy unfilled gaps in the communities often occupied by the native species; this is achieved by occupying functional spaces. Overall, changes in taxonomic and functional diversity of native species documented here partially confirmed impacts of O. niloticus invasion. Therefore, we recommend a multifaceted approach to assess cumulative impacts of invasion on native species.     

盐城滨海滩涂湿地典型植物群落土壤微生物组成与结构特征

土壤微生物是生态系统维持正常结构与功能的重要组成部分,为探究盐城滩涂典型湿地土壤微生物群落结构特征,以江苏盐城滩涂互花米草、藨草、盐地碱蓬、芦苇及淤泥质光滩5种典型群落为对象,采用16S rRNA高通量测序技术分析0—10 cm(表层)、10—30 cm(中层)、30—60 cm(深层)土壤微生物多样性及群落结构。结果表明：(1)几种植物群落间,土壤微生物群落结构差异较大,主要体现在细菌群落结构的差异性,古菌群落结构差异相对较小。光滩与植物群落间,在土壤细菌种类及相对丰度上差异相对较大,互花米草群落与本土植物群落间,在微生物群落的细菌种类组成上存在较大差异;藨草群落土壤表层微生物群落结构与互花米草群落相似,深层与盐地碱蓬、芦苇群落相似。(2)同一群落不同层次土壤微生物群落结构相似,差异小于不同群落间土壤微生物群落的结构差异性;不同群落对应层次间,表深层土壤中五种群落土壤微生物多样性存在显著差异,中层土壤中五种群落微生物多样性差异不显著。总体上,植物群落类型对土壤微生物群落结构的影响大于土壤深度;与本土植物群落相比,互花米草群落土壤主要优势门微生物种类差异较小,但部分优势门微生物相对丰度...     

Bacterial Activity, Community Structure, and Centimeter-Scale Spatial Heterogeneity in Contaminated Soil

In an anthropogenically disturbed soil (88% sand, 8% silt, 4% clay), 150-mg samples were studied to examine the fine-scale relationship of bacterial activity and community structure to heavy metal contaminants. The soils had been contaminated for over 40 years with aromatic solvents, Pb, and Cr. Samples from distances of <1, 5, 15, and 50 cm over a depth range of 40–90 cm underwent a sequential analysis to determine metabolic potential (from ¹⁴C glucose mineralization), bacterial community structure [using polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE)], and total extractable Pb and Cr levels. Metabolic potential varied by as much as 10,000-fold in samples <1 cm apart; log–log plots of metal concentration and microbial metabolic potential showed no correlation with each other. Overall, metal concentrations ranged from 9 to 29,000 mg kg⁻¹ for Pb and from 3 to 8500 mg kg⁻¹ for Cr with small zones of high contamination present. All regions exhibited variable metal concentrations, with some soil samples having 30-fold differences in metal concentration in sites <1 cm apart. Geostatistical analysis revealed a strong spatial dependence for all three parameters tested (metabolic activity, Pb, and Cr levels) with a range up to 30 cm. Kriging maps showed that in zones of high metal, the corresponding metabolic activity was low suggesting that metals negatively impacted the microbial community. PCR-DGGE analysis revealed that diverse communities were present in the soils with a random distribution of phylotypes throughout the sampling zones. These results suggest the presence of spatially isolated microbial communities within the soil profile.     

The unseen invaders: introduced earthworms as drivers of change in plant communities in North American forests (a meta‐analysis)

Globally, biological invasions can have strong impacts on biodiversity as well as ecosystem functioning. While less conspicuous than introduced aboveground organisms, introduced belowground organisms may have similarly strong effects. Here, we synthesize for the first time the impacts of introduced earthworms on plant diversity and community composition in North American forests. We conducted a meta‐analysis using a total of 645 observations to quantify mean effect sizes of associations between introduced earthworm communities and plant diversity, cover of plant functional groups, and cover of native and non‐native plants. We found that plant diversity significantly declined with increasing richness of introduced earthworm ecological groups. While plant species richness or evenness did not change with earthworm invasion, our results indicate clear changes in plant community composition: cover of graminoids and non‐native plant species significantly increased, and cover of native plant species (of all functional groups) tended to decrease, with increasing earthworm biomass. Overall, these findings support the hypothesis that introduced earthworms facilitate particular plant species adapted to the abiotic conditions of earthworm‐invaded forests. Further, our study provides evidence that introduced earthworms are associated with declines in plant diversity in North American forests. Changing plant functional composition in these forests may have long‐lasting effects on ecosystem functioning.