Schizosaccharomyces pombe Spk1 is a tyrosine-phosphorylated protein functionally related to Xenopus mitogen-activated protein kinase.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and its direct activator, MAPK kinase (MAPKK), have been suggested to play a pivotal role in a variety of signal transduction pathways in higher eukaryotes. The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe carries a gene, named spk1, whose product is structurally related to vertebrate MAPK. Here we show that Spk1 is functionally related to Xenopus MAPK. (i) Xenopus MAPK partially complemented a defect in the spk1- mutant. An spk1- diploid strain could not sporulate, but one carrying Xenopus MAPK could. (ii) Both Spk1 and Xenopus MAPK interfered with sporulation if overexpressed in S. pombe cells. (iii) Spk1 underwent tyrosine phosphorylation as does Xenopus MAPK. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Spk1 appeared to be dependent upon mating signals because it occurred in homothallic cells but not in heterothallic cells. Furthermore, this phosphorylation was diminished in a byr1 disruptant strain, suggesting that spk1 lies downstream of byr1, which encodes a MAPKK homolog in S. pombe. Taken together, the MAPKK-MAPK cascade may be evolutionarily conserved in signaling pathways in yeasts and vertebrates.     

Spk1, a new kinase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, phosphorylates proteins on serine, threonine, and tyrosine.

A Saccharomyces cerevisiae lambda gt11 library was screened with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies in an attempt to identify a gene encoding a tyrosine kinase. A subclone derived from one positive phage was sequenced and found to contain an 821-amino-acid open reading frame that encodes a protein with homology to protein kinases. We tested the activity of the putative kinase by constructing a vector encoding a glutathione-S-transferase fusion protein containing most of the predicted polypeptide. The fusion protein phosphorylated endogenous substrates and enolase primarily on serine and threonine. The gene was designated SPK1 for serine-protein kinase. Expression of the Spk1 fusion protein in bacteria stimulated serine, threonine, and tyrosine phosphorylation of bacterial proteins. These results, combined with the antiphosphotyrosine immunoreactivity induced by the kinase, indicate that Spk1 is capable of phosphorylating tyrosine as well as phosphorylating serine and threonine. In in vitro assays, the fusion protein kinase phosphorylated the synthetic substrate poly(Glu/Tyr) on tyrosine, but the activity was weak compared with serine and threonine phosphorylation of other substrates. To determine if other serine/threonine kinases would phosphorylate poly(Glu/Tyr), we tested calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. The two kinases had similar tyrosine-phosphorylating activities. These results establish that the functional difference between serine/threonine- and tyrosine-protein kinases is not absolute and suggest that there may be physiological circumstances in which tyrosine phosphorylation is mediated by serine/threonine kinases.     

A eukaryotic-type protein kinase, SpkA, is required for normal motility of the unicellular Cyanobacterium synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803

The genome of the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 comprises many open reading frames (ORFs) which putatively encode eukaryotic-type protein kinase and protein phosphatase. Based on gene disruption analysis, a region of the hypothetical ORF sll1575, which retained a part of the protein kinase motif, was found to be required for normal motility in the original isolate of strain PCC 6803. Sequence determination revealed that in this strain sll1575 was part of a gene (designated spkA) which harbored an entire eukaryotic-type Ser/Thr protein kinase motif. Strain ATCC 27184 and a glucose-tolerant strain derived from the same isolate as the PCC strain had a frameshift mutation dividing spkA into ORFs sll1574 and sll1575. The structural integrity of spkA agreed well with the motility phenotype, determined by colony morphology on agar plates. The spkA gene was expressed in Escherichia coli as a His-tagged protein, which was purified by Ni2+ affinity chromatography. With [gamma-32P]ATP, SpkA was autophosphorylated and transferred the phosphate group to casein, myelin basic protein, and histone. SpkA also phosphorylated several proteins in the membrane fraction of Synechocystis cells. These results suggest that SpkA is a eukaryotic-type Ser/Thr protein kinase and regulates cellular motility via phosphorylation of the membrane proteins in Synechocystis.     

Impaired synergistic activation of stress-activated protein kinase SAPK/JNK in mouse embryonic stem cells lacking SEK1/MKK4: different contribution of SEK2/MKK7 isoforms to the synergistic activation.

Stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK), which is a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, plays an important role in a stress-induced signaling cascade. SAPK/JNK activation requires the phosphorylation of Thr and Tyr residues in its Thr-Pro-Tyr motif, and SEK1 (MKK4) and MKK7 (SEK2) have been identified as the upstream MAPK kinases. Here we examined the activation and phosphorylation sites of SAPK/JNK and differentiated the contribution of SEK1 and MKK7alpha1, -gamma1, and -gamma2 isoforms to the MAPK activation. In SEK1-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells, stress-induced SAPK/JNK activation was markedly impaired, and this defect was accompanied with a decreased level of the Tyr phosphorylation. Analysis in HeLa cells co-transfected with the two MAPK kinases revealed that the Thr and Tyr of SAPK/JNK were independently phosphorylated in response to heat shock by MKK7gamma1 and SEK1, respectively. However, MKK7alpha1 failed to phosphorylate the Thr of SAPK/JNK unless its Tyr residue was phosphorylated by SEK1. In contrast, MKK7gamma2 had the ability to phosphorylate both Thr and Tyr residues. In all cases, the dual phosphorylation of the Thr and Tyr residues was essentially required for the full activation of SAPK/JNK. These data provide the first evidence that synergistic activation of SAPK/JNK requires both phosphorylation at the Thr and Tyr residues in living cells and that the preference for the Thr and Tyr phosphorylation was different among the members of MAPK kinases.     

Membrane localization of the kinase which phosphorylates p34cdc2 on threonine 14.

The key regulator of entry into mitosis is the serine/threonine kinase p34cdc2. This kinase is regulated both by association with cyclins and by phosphorylation at several sites. Phosphorylation at Tyr 15 and Thr 14 are believed to inhibit the kinase activity of cdc2. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the wee1 (and possibly mik1) protein kinase catalyzes phosphorylation of Tyr 15. It is not clear whether these or other, as yet unidentified, protein kinases phosphorylate Thr 14. In this report we show, using extracts of Xenopus eggs, that the Thr 14-directed kinase is tightly membrane associated. Specifically, we have shown that a purified membrane fraction, in the absence of cytoplasm, can promote phosphorylation of cdc2 on both Thr 14 and Tyr 15. In contrast, the cytoplasm can phosphorylate cdc2 only on Tyr 15, suggesting the existence of at least two distinctly localized subpopulations of cdc2 Tyr 15-directed kinases. The membrane-associated Tyr 15 and Thr 14 kinase activities behaved similarly during salt or detergent extraction and were similarly regulated during the cell cycle and by the checkpoint machinery that delays mitosis while DNA is being replicated. This suggests the possibility that a dual-specificity membrane-associated protein kinase may catalyze phosphorylation of both Tyr 15 and Thr 14.     

Different properties of SEK1 and MKK7 in dual phosphorylation of stress-induced activated protein kinase SAPK/JNK in embryonic stem cells

Stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK), belonging to the mitogen-activated protein kinase family, plays an important role in stress signaling. SAPK/JNK activation requires the phosphorylation of both Thr and Tyr residues in its Thr-Pro-Tyr motif, and SEK1 and MKK7 have been identified as the dual specificity kinases. In this study, we generated mkk7(-/-) mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells in addition to sek1(-/-) cells and compared the two kinases in terms of the activation and phosphorylation of JNK. Although SAPK/JNK activation by various stress signals was markedly impaired in both sek1(-/-) and mkk7(-/-) ES cells, there were striking differences in the dual phosphorylation profile. The severe impairment observed in mkk7(-/-) cells was accompanied by a loss of the Thr phosphorylation of JNK without marked reduction in its Tyr-phosphorylated level. On the other hand, Thr phosphorylation of JNK in sek1(-/-) cells was also attenuated in addition to a decreased level of its Tyr phosphorylation. Analysis in human embryonic kidney 293T cells transfected with a kinase-dead SEK1 or a Thr-Pro-Phe mutant of JNK1 revealed that SEK1-induced Tyr phosphorylation of JNK1 was followed by additional Thr phosphorylation by MKK7. Furthermore, SEK1 but not MKK7 was capable of binding to JNK1 in 293T cells. These results indicate that the Tyr and Thr residues of SAPK/JNK are sequentially phosphorylated by SEK1 and MKK7, respectively, in the stress-stimulated ES cells.     

Protein kinase C delta is phosphorylated on five novel Ser/Thr sites following inducible overexpression in human colorectal cancer cells

Phosphorylation plays an important role in regulation of protein kinase C delta (PKCdelta). To date, three Ser/Thr residues (Thr 505, Ser 643, and Ser 662) and nine tyrosine residues (Tyr 52, Tyr 64, Tyr 155, Tyr 187, Tyr 311, Tyr 332, Tyr 512, Tyr 523, and Tyr 565) have been defined as regulatory phosphorylation sites for this protein (rat PKCdelta numbering). We combined doxycycline-regulated inducible gene expression technology with a hypothesis-driven mass spectrometry approach to study PKCdelta phosphorylation pattern in colorectal cancer cells. We report identification of five novel Ser/Thr phosphorylation sites: Thr 50, Thr 141, Ser 304, Thr 451, and Ser 506 (human PKCdelta numbering) following overexpression of PKCdelta in HCT116 human colon carcinoma cells grown in standard tissue culture conditions. Identification of potential novel phosphorylation sites will affect further functional studies of this protein, and may introduce additional complexity to PKCdelta signaling.     

Isolation and characterization of a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paramecium</Emphasis> cDNA clone encoding a putative serine/threonine protein kinase

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases, a closely related family of protein kinases, are involved in cell cycle regulation and differentiation in yeast and human cells. They have not been documented in ciliates. We used PCR to amplify DNA sequences of a ciliated protozoan—Paramecium caudatum—using primers corresponding to amino acid sequences that are common to MAP kinases. We isolated and sequenced one putative MAP kinase-like serine/threonine kinase cDNA from P. caudatum. This cDNA, called pcstk1 (Paramecium caudatum Serine/Threonine Kinase 1) shared approximately 35% amino acid identity with MAP kinases from yeast. MAP kinases are activated by phosphorylation of specific threonine and tyrosine residues. These two amino acid residues are conserved in the PCSTK1 sequence at positions Thr 159 and Tyr 161. The PSTAIRE motif, which is characteristic of the CDK2 gene family, cannot be found in ORF of PCSTK1. The highest homology score was to human STK9, which contains MAP type kinase domains. Comparisons of expression level have shown that pcstk1 is expressed equally in cells at different stages (sexual and asexual). We discussed the possibility, as in other organisms, that a family of MAP kinase genes exists in P. caudatum.     

Cell cycle regulation of the p34cdc2 inhibitory kinases.

In cells of higher eukaryotic organisms the activity of the p34cdc2/cyclin B complex is inhibited by phosphorylation of p34cdc2 at two sites within its amino-terminus (threonine 14 and tyrosine 15). In this study, the cell cycle regulation of the kinases responsible for phosphorylating p34cdc2 on Thr14 and Tyr15 was examined in extracts prepared from both HeLa cells and Xenopus eggs. Both Thr14- and Tyr15- specific kinase activities were regulated in a cell cycle-dependent manner. The kinase activities were high throughout interphase and diminished coincident with entry of cells into mitosis. In HeLa cells delayed in G2 by the DNA-binding dye Hoechst 33342, Thr14- and Tyr15-specific kinase activities remained high, suggesting that a decrease in Thr14- and Tyr15- kinase activities may be required for entry of cells into mitosis. Similar cell cycle regulation was observed for the Thr14/Tyr15 kinase(s) in Xenopus egg extracts. These results indicate that activation of CDC2 and entry of cells into mitosis is not triggered solely by activation of the Cdc25 phosphatase but by the balance between Thr14/Tyr15 kinase and phosphatase activities. Finally, we have detected two activities capable of phosphorylating p34cdc2 on Thr14 and/or Tyr15 in interphase extracts prepared from Xenopus eggs. An activity capable of phosphorylating Tyr15 remained soluble after ultracentrifugation of interphase extracts whereas a second activity capable of phosphorylating both Thr14 and Tyr15 pelleted. The pelleted fraction contained activities that were detergent extractable and that phosphorylated p34cdc2 on both Thr14 and Tyr15. The Thr14- and Tyr15-specific kinase activities co-purified through three successive chromatographic steps indicating the presence of a dual-specificity protein kinase capable of acting on p34cdc2.     

StoPK-1, a serine/threonine protein kinase from the glycopeptide antibiotic producer Streptomyces toyocaensis NRRL 15009, affects oxidative stress response

The glycopeptide antibiotic-producing bacterium, Streptomyces toyocaensis NRRL 15009, has proteins phosphorylated on Ser, Thr, Tyr and His, implying the presence of a battery of associated kinases. We have identified the Ser/Thr protein kinase gene fragments stoPK-1, stoPK-2, stoPK-3 and stoPK-4 from S. toyocaensis NRRL 15009 by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) strategy using oligonucleotide primers based on eukaryotic Ser/Thr and Tyr kinase sequences. One of these (stoPK-1) was subsequently cloned in its entirety from a 3.2 kb genomic BamHI fragment. stoPK-1 encodes a 642-amino-acid protein with a predicted N-terminal Ser/Thr kinase domain and a C-terminal coiled-coil region divided by a membrane-spanning region. Expression of StoPK-1 in Escherichia coli yielded a protein confined to the membrane fraction, which was found to be phosphorylated exclusively on Thr residues and could transfer phosphate to the model substrates myelin basic protein and histone H1. Both autophosphorylation and phosphoryl transfer could be inhibited by the flavanoid apigenin. Disruption of stoPK-1 with the apramycin resistance gene in the S. toyo-caensis chromosome resulted in changes in mycelial morphology and an increased sensitivity to the redox cycling agents paraquat and nitrofurantoin on glucose-containing media. Supplying stoPK-1 or the S. coelicolor homologue pkaF in trans could reverse this sensitivity, whereas a catalytically inactive mutant of stoPK-1 could not, indicating that kinase activity is essential for this phenotype. This suggests a link between this membrane-bound protein kinase in signalling pathways sensitive to oxidative stress and/or glucose metabolism. These results broaden the roles of Ser/Thr protein kinases in bacteria and underscore the diversity of signal transduction mechanisms available to respond to various stimuli.     

Phosphorylation of cyclin D1 regulated by ATM or ATR controls cell cycle progression

Cyclin D1 is required at high levels for passage through G₁ phase but must be reduced to low levels during S phase to avoid the inhibition of DNA synthesis. This suppression requires the phosphorylation of Thr286, which is induced directly by DNA synthesis. Because the checkpoint kinase ATR is activated by normal replication as well as by DNA damage, its potential role in regulating cyclin D1 phosphorylation was tested. We found that ATR, activated by either UV irradiation or the topoisomerase IIβ binding protein 1 activator, promoted cyclin D1 phosphorylation. Small interfering RNA against ATR inhibited UV-induced Thr286 phosphorylation, together with that seen in normally cycling cells, indicating that ATR regulates cyclin D1 phosphorylation in normal as well as stressed cells. Following double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) breakage, the related checkpoint kinase ATM was also able to promote the phosphorylation of cyclin D1 Thr286. The relationship between these checkpoint kinases and cyclin D1 was extended when we found that normal cell cycle blockage in G₁ phase observed following dsDNA damage was efficiently overcome when exogenous cyclin D1 was expressed within the cells. These results indicate that checkpoint kinases play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression in normal and stressed cells by directing the phosphorylation of cyclin D1.