The cranial morphology of the Botocudo Indians,Brazil

The Botocudo Indians were hunter‐gatherer groups that occupied the East‐Central regions of Brazil decimated during the colonial period in the country. During the 19th century, craniometric studies suggested that the Botocudo resembled more the Paleoamerican population of Lagoa Santa than typical Native Americans groups. These results suggest that the Botocudo Indians might represent a population that retained the biological characteristics of early groups of the continent, remaining largely isolated from groups that gave origin to the modern Native South American variation. Moreover, recently, some of the Botocudo remains have been shown to have mitochondrial and autosomal DNA lineages currently found in Polynesian populations. Here, we explore the morphological affinities of Botocudo skulls within a worldwide context. Distinct multivariate analyses based on 32 craniometric variables show that 1) the two individuals with Polynesian DNA sequences have morphological characteristics that fall within the Polynesian and Botocudo variation, making their assignation as Native American specimens problematic, and 2) there are high morphological affinities between Botocudo, Early Americans, and the Polynesian series of Easter Island, which support the early observations that the Botocudo can be seen as retaining the Paleoamerican morphology, particularly when the neurocranium is considered. Although these results do not elucidate the origin of the Polynesian DNA lineages among the Botocudo, they support the hypothesis that the Botocudo represent a case of late survival of ancient Paleoamerican populations, retaining the morphological characteristics of ancestral Late Pleistocene populations from Asia. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:202–216, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Testing Evolutionary and Dispersion Scenarios for the Settlement of the New World

Background

Discussion surrounding the settlement of the New World has recently gained momentum with advances in molecular biology, archaeology and bioanthropology. Recent evidence from these diverse fields is found to support different colonization scenarios. The currently available genetic evidence suggests a “single migration” model, in which both early and later Native American groups derive from one expansion event into the continent. In contrast, the pronounced anatomical differences between early and late Native American populations have led others to propose more complex scenarios, involving separate colonization events of the New World and a distinct origin for these groups.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using large samples of Early American crania, we: 1) calculated the rate of morphological differentiation between Early and Late American samples under three different time divergence assumptions, and compared our findings to the predicted morphological differentiation under neutral conditions in each case; and 2) further tested three dispersal scenarios for the colonization of the New World by comparing the morphological distances among early and late Amerindians, East Asians, Australo-Melanesians and early modern humans from Asia to geographical distances associated with each dispersion model. Results indicate that the assumption of a last shared common ancestor outside the continent better explains the observed morphological differences between early and late American groups. This result is corroborated by our finding that a model comprising two Asian waves of migration coming through Bering into the Americas fits the cranial anatomical evidence best, especially when the effects of diversifying selection to climate are taken into account.

Conclusions

We conclude that the morphological diversity documented through time in the New World is best accounted for by a model postulating two waves of human expansion into the continent originating in East Asia and entering through Beringia.     

A new early Holocene human skeleton from Brazil: implications for the settlement of the New World

Increasing skeletal evidence from the U.S.A., Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil strongly suggests that the first settlers in the Americas had a cranial morphology distinct from that displayed by most late and modern Native Americans. The Paleoamerican morphological pattern is more generalized and can be seen today among Africans, Australians, and Melanesians. Here, we present the results of a comparative morphological assessment of a late Paleoindian/early archaic specimen from Capelinha Burial II, southern Brazil. The Capelinha skull was compared with samples of four Paleoindian groups from South and Central America and worldwide modern groups from W.W. Howells' studies. In both analyses performed (classical morphometrics and geometric morphometrics), the results show a clear association between Capelinha Burial II and the Paleoindians, as well as Australians, Melanesians, and Africans, confirming its Paleoamerican status.     

Late Pleistocene/Holocene craniofacial morphology in Mesoamerican Paleoindians: implications for the peopling of the New World

Several studies on craniofacial morphology showed that most Paleoindians, who were the first settlers of the New World, clearly differ from modern Amerindians and East Asians, their supposed descendants and sister group, respectively. Here we present new evidence supporting this view from the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene horizon from Mexico, as well as from the most complete set of dated Paleoindian remains. We analyzed the phenotypic resemblance of early Mexicans with other South Paleoamerican and modern human series. Two independent approaches to the data were used. In the first case, individual specimens were tested for morphological similarity with a set of modern reference samples. In the second analysis, Mexican specimens were treated as a sample in order to compute minimum genetic distances. Results from both approaches tend to associate early Mexican skulls with Paleoindians from Brazil, an Archaic sample from Colombia, and several circum-Pacific populations. These results give support to a model in which morphologically generalized groups of non-Northeast Asian descent (the so-called Paleoamericans) entered the continent first, and then dispersed from North to South America through Central America. The large geographic dispersal of Paleoamericans, and their presence in Mexico in the Early Holocene, raise new issues about the continent's settlement scenario.     

Discrepancy between Cranial and DNA Data of Early Americans: Implications for American Peopling

Currently, one of the major debates about the American peopling focuses on the number of populations that originated the biological diversity found in the continent during the Holocene. The studies of craniometric variation in American human remains dating from that period have shown morphological differences between the earliest settlers of the continent and some of the later Amerindian populations. This led some investigators to suggest that these groups—known as Paleomericans and Amerindians respectively—may have arisen from two biologically different populations. On the other hand, most DNA studies performed over extant and ancient populations suggest a single migration of a population from Northeast Asia. Comparing craniometric and mtDNA data of diachronic samples from East Central Argentina dated from 8,000 to 400 years BP, we show here that even when the oldest individuals display traits attributable to Paleoamerican crania, they present the same mtDNA haplogroups as later populations with Amerindian morphology. A possible explanation for these results could be that the craniofacial differentiation was a local phenomenon resulting from random (i.e. genetic drift) and non-random factors (e.g. selection and plasticity). Local processes of morphological differentiation in America are a probable scenario if we take into consideration the rapid peopling and the great ecological diversity of this continent; nevertheless we will discuss alternative explanations as well.     

Human skeletal remains from Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia: A case of Paleoamerican morphology late survival in South America?

Human skeletal remains of the first Americans are scarce, especially in North America. In South America the situation is less dramatic. Two important archaeological regions have generated important collections that allow the analysis of the cranial morphological variation of the Early Americans: Lagoa Santa, Brazil, and Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia. Human crania from the former region have been studied by one of us (WAN) and collaborators, showing that the cranial morphology of the first South Americans was very different from that prevailing today in East Asia and among Native Americans. These results have allowed for proposing that the New World may have been colonized by two different biological populations in the final Pleistocene/early Holocene. In this study, 74 human skulls dated between 11.0 and 3.0 kyr, recovered in seven different sites of Sabana de Bogotá, Colombia, were compared with the world cranial variation by different multivariate techniques: Principal Components Analysis, Multidimensional Scaling, and Cluster of Mahalanobis distance matrices. The Colombian skeletal remains were divided in two chronological subgroups: Paleocolombians (11.0-6.0 kyr) and Archaic Colombians (5.0-3.0 kyr). Both quantitative techniques generated convergent results: the Paleocolombians show remarkable similarities with Lagoa Santa and with modern Australo-Melanesians. Archaic Colombians exhibited the same morphological patterns and associations. These findings support our long-held proposition that the early American settlement may have involved two very distinct biological populations coming from Asia. On the other hand, they suggest the possibility of late survivals of the Paleoamerican pattern not restricted to isolated or marginal areas, as previously thought.     

Morphometric cranial identity of prehistoric Malawians in the light of sub-Saharan African diversity

Little has been described of the Holocene populations of South‐Central Africa, despite the region demonstrating major subsistence shifts relating to dispersals of agriculturalists at least 2,000 years ago. Seven sites with associated human skeletal remains were selected. Hora, Chencherere, Fingura, and Mtuzi represent the Middle Holocene (2,000–5,000 years ago), and Phwadze, Mtemankhokwe, and Nkudzi Bay represent the Late Holocene and the arrival of agriculturalists between 500–2,000 years ago. Focusing on the identity of Hora and Chencherere specimens, two questions were addressed: are the various Holocene Malawians similar to each other, or do they suggest morphological change over time? What modern populations are closest to the prehistoric specimens? The archaeological sample was compared to modern sub‐Saharan Africans from four regions, plus a historic Khoi‐San foraging group. Factor analyses were performed in order to identify complex patterns of variation in metric traits of the skull. According to the results, prehistoric Malawians showed only slight differences between the Late and Middle Holocene, suggesting a population change without any major discontinuity. Later Stone Age skulls did not exclusively show similarities with the Khoi‐San, as they frequently fit well within the variation of modern Bantu‐speaking groups, especially West‐Central Africa. Therefore, we reject the hypothesis that Middle Holocene South‐Central Africans have an exclusively Khoi‐San ancestry, and support an alternative hypothesis that both Middle and Late Holocene groups share a common biological heritage originating in West‐Central Africa in earlier times. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2006. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Early Holocene human skeletal remains from Sumidouro Cave, Lagoa Santa, Brazil: history of discoveries, geological and chronological context, and comparative cranial morphology

In this work, we present new evidence supporting the idea that the first Americans were very distinct from late and recent Native Americans and Asians in terms of cranial morphology. The study is based on 30 early Holocene specimens recovered from Sumidouro Cave (Lagoa Santa region, central Brazil) by Peter Lund in 1843. Sumidouro is the largest known collection of Paleoindian skulls deriving from a single site. Six different multivariate statistical methods were applied to assess the morphological affinities of the Sumidouro skulls in comparison to Howells' worldwide extant series and late archaic Brazilian series (Base Aérea and Tapera). The results show a clear association between Sumidouro and Australo-Melanesians and none with late Asian and Amerindian series. These results are in accordance with those of previous studies of final Pleistocene/early Holocene human skulls from South, Central, and North America, attesting to a colonization of the New World by at least two different, succeeding biological populations: an early one with a cranial morphology similar to that found today in the African and Australian continents, and a later one with a morphology similar to that found today among northeastern Asians.     

Reconstructing the origin and dispersal patterns of village chickens across East Africa: insights from autosomal markers

Unravelling the genetic history of any livestock species is central to understanding the origin, development and expansion of agricultural societies and economies. Domestic village chickens are widespread in Africa. Their close association with, and reliance on, humans for long‐range dispersal makes the species an important biological marker in tracking cultural and trading contacts between human societies and civilizations across time. Archaezoological and linguistic evidence suggest a complex history of arrival and dispersion of the species on the continent, with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D‐loop analysis revealing the presence of five distinct haplogroups in East African village chickens. It supports the importance of the region in understanding the history of the species and indirectly of human interactions. Here, through a detailed analysis of 30 autosomal microsatellite markers genotyped in 657 village chickens from four East African countries (Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan), we identify three distinct autosomal gene pools (I, II and III). Gene pool I is predominantly found in Ethiopia and Sudan, while II and III occur in both Kenya and Uganda. A gradient of admixture for gene pools II and III between the Kenyan coast and Uganda's hinterland (P = 0.001) is observed, while gene pool I is clearly separated from the other two. We propose that these three gene pools represent genetic signatures of separate events in the history of the continent that relate to the arrival and dispersal of village chickens and humans across the region. Our results provide new insights on the history of chicken husbandry which has been shaped by terrestrial and maritime contacts between ancient and modern civilizations in Asia and East Africa.     

Affinities between contemporary and skeletal Jewish and non-Jewish groups based on tooth morphology

Samples from five Jewish and six non-Jewish populations were compared in terms of the frequencies of 19 dental morphological variables. All but one of the samples came from Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East. Nine were from contemporary populations, and two were skeletal. Of the skeletal groups, one was Jewish, excavated on Mount Zion, Jerusalem, and dated at around 3,000 years old; and the other non-Jewish, excavated on the east coast of Australia, and dated at between 1,000 and 200 years old. Assessment of affinity between the different groups was based on smallest space analysis and cluster analysis. The results demonstrated relative proximity of the Jewish groups (with one exception), despite the fact that they came from a wide geographical area. In particular, the sample from Mount Zion showed greater affinity with three of the four living Jewish populations than with most non-Jewish groups. The skeletal Australian sample formed a cluster of its own, distinct from all the other groups. For six of the groups, the relationships based on tooth morphology showed good correspondence with known relationships based on single locus polymorphisms. The similarity of the Jewish groups to each other in terms of both tooth morphology and single locus polymorphisms was of special interest, since differences in other morphological and anthropometric characteristics, thought to be the result of selection, are known to exist between the Jewish populations.     

Effect of bite force and diet composition on craniofacial diversification of Southern South American human populations

Ecological factors can be important to shape the patterns of morphological variation among human populations. Particularly, diet plays a fundamental role in craniofacial variation due to both the effect of the nutritional status—mostly dependent on the type and amount of nutrients consumed—on skeletal growth and the localized effects of masticatory forces. We examine these two dimensions of diet and evaluate their influence on morphological diversification of human populations from southern South America during the late Holocene. Cranial morphology was measured as 3D coordinates defining the face, base and vault. Size, form, and shape variables were obtained for 474 adult individuals coming from 12 samples. Diet composition was inferred from carious lesions and δ¹³C data, whereas bite forces were estimated using traits of main jaw muscles. The spatial structure of the morphological and ecological variables was measured using correlograms. The influence of diet composition and bite force on morphometric variation was estimated by a spatial regression model. Cranial variation and diet composition display a geographical structure, while no geographical pattern was observed in bite forces. Cranial variation in size and form is significantly associated with diet composition, suggesting a strong effect of systemic factors on cranial growth. Conversely, bite forces do not contribute significantly to the pattern of morphological variation among the samples analyzed. Overall, these results show that an association between diet composition and hardness cannot be assumed, and highlight the complex relationship between morphological diversification and diet in human populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:114–127, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Mitochondrial phylogeography,contact zones and taxonomy of grass snakes (Natrix natrix,N. megalocephala)

Grass snakes (Natrix natrix) represent one of the most widely distributed snake species of the Palaearctic region, ranging from the North African Maghreb region and the Iberian Peninsula through most of Europe and western Asia eastward to the region of Lake Baikal in Central Asia. Within N. natrix, up to 14 distinct subspecies are regarded as valid. In addition, some authors recognize big‐headed grass snakes from western Transcaucasia as a distinct species, N. megalocephala. Based on phylogenetic analyses of a 1984‐bp‐long alignment of mtDNA sequences (ND4+tRNAs, cyt b) of 410 grass snakes, a nearly range‐wide phylogeography is presented for both species. Within N. natrix, 16 terminal mitochondrial clades were identified, most of which conflict with morphologically defined subspecies. These 16 clades correspond to three more inclusive clades from (i) the Iberian Peninsula plus North Africa, (ii) East Europe and Asia and (iii) West Europe including Corso‐Sardinia, the Apennine Peninsula and Sicily. Hypotheses regarding glacial refugia and postglacial range expansions are presented. Refugia were most likely located in each of the southern European peninsulas, Corso‐Sardinia, North Africa, Anatolia and the neighbouring Near and Middle East, where the greatest extant genetic diversity occurs. Multiple distinct microrefugia are inferred for continental Italy plus Sicily, the Balkan Peninsula, Anatolia and the Near and Middle East. Holocene range expansions led to the colonization of more northerly regions and the formation of secondary contact zones. Western Europe was invaded from a refuge within southern France, while Central Europe was reached by two distinct range expansions from the Balkan Peninsula. In Central Europe, there are two contact zones of three distinct mitochondrial clades, and one of these contact zones was theretofore completely unknown. Another contact zone is hypothesized for Eastern Europe, which was colonized, like north‐western Asia, from the Caucasus region. Further contact zones were identified for southern Italy, the Balkans and Transcaucasia. In agreement with previous studies using morphological characters and allozymes, there is no evidence for the distinctiveness of N. megalocephala. Therefore, N. megalocephala is synonymized with N. natrix.     

Phylogeography of Bacillus anthracis in the Country of Georgia Shows Evidence of Population Structuring and Is Dissimilar to Other Regional Genotypes

Sequence analyses and subtyping of Bacillus anthracis strains from Georgia reveal a single distinct lineage (Aust94) that is ecologically established. Phylogeographic analysis and comparisons to a global collection reveals a clade that is mostly restricted to Georgia. Within this clade, many groups are found around the country, however at least one subclade is only found in the eastern part. This pattern suggests that dispersal into and out of Georgia has been rare and despite historical dispersion within the country, for at least for one lineage, current spread is limited.     

Craniofacial affinities of Mariana Islanders and Circum-Pacific peoples

Metric craniofacial variation was studied in a number of skeletal samples that originated from the Mariana Islands and circum-Pacific regions. The broad comparisons including East/Southeast Asians, Polynesians, Melanesians, and Australians confirm the relationships between Mariana Islanders and East/Southeast Asians on the one hand and Polynesians on the other hand. A transformation of Melanesians into western Micronesians is not supported. The result of the principal component analysis indicates that the cranial morphological pattern of Mariana people shares the intermediate characteristics between those of typical East/Southeast Asians and several groups falling as outliers to more predominant Asian populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:411–425, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Early Eurasian migration traces in the Tarim Basin revealed by mtDNA polymorphisms

The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms of 58 samples from the Daheyan village located in the central Taklamakan Desert of the Tarim Basin were determined in this study. Among the 58 samples, 29 haplotypes belonging to 18 different haplogroups were analyzed. Almost all the mtDNAs belong to a subset of either the defined Western or Eastern Eurasian pool. Extensive Eastern Eurasian lineages exist in the Daheyan population in which Northern‐prevalent haplogroups present higher frequencies. In the limited existing Western Eurasian lineages, two sub‐haplogroups, U3 and X2, that are rare in Central Asia were found in this study, which may be indicative of the remnants of an early immigrant population from the Near East and Caucasus regions preserved only in the Tarim Basin. The presence of U3 in modern and archeological samples in the Tarim Basin suggests that the immigration took place earlier than 2,000 years ago and points to human continuity in this area, with at least one Western lineage originating from the Near East and Caucasus regions. Am J Phys Anthropol 142:558–564, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Short report: Introduction of chikungunya virus ECSA genotype into the Brazilian Midwest and its dispersion through the Americas

Since introduction into Brazil in 2014, chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has presented sustained transmission, although much is unknown about its circulation in the midwestern states. Here, we analyze 24 novel partial and near complete CHIKV genomes from Cuiaba, an urban metropolis located in the Brazilian midwestern state of Mato Grosso (MT).Nanopore technology was used for sequencing CHIKV complete genomes. Phylogenetic and epidemiological approaches were used to explore the recent spatio-temporal evolution and spread of the CHIKV-ECSA genotype in Midwest Brazil as well as in the Americas.Epidemiological data revealed a reduction in the number of reported cases over 2018–2020, likely as a consequence of a gradual accumulation of herd-immunity. Phylogeographic reconstructions revealed that at least two independent introductions of the ECSA lineage occurred in MT from a dispersion event originating in the northeastern region and suggest that the midwestern Brazilian region appears to have acted as a source of virus transmission towards Paraguay, a bordering South American country.Our results show a complex dynamic of transmission between epidemic seasons and suggest a possible role of Brazil as a source for international dispersion of the CHIKV-ECSA genotype to other countries in the Americas.     

BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH: Current distribution and predicted geographic expansion of the Rufous‐backed Robin in Mexico: a fading endemism?

Aim The Rufous‐backed Robin Turdus rufopalliatus is a bird endemic to the Pacific slope of Mexico. The species recently established populations in several localities in the Mexican Central Highlands. Based on available data, we modelled the range expansion of the Rufous‐backed Robin in Mexico to understand the pattern, mechanisms and ecological and biogeographic implications of its expansion. Location Mexico. Methods We assessed the species’ presence and habitat requirements at two spatial scales. At the site level, we evaluated the relationship between land use and species presence in an urban environment. At the country level, we generated a niche model. We then produced a dispersion model through the interpolation of points generated from information derived from the niche model, the location of records within and outside its native distribution range, the species’ natural history, habitat requirements and its estimated dispersion rate (4.2 km year^?1). Results The dispersion model predicted that the species will significantly increase its distribution range in Mexico in the coming decades. Its expansion would occur by a stepping‐stone colonization of suitable habitat in areas of native vegetation and human settlements. The model predicted that the species should arrive on the Gulf slope of Mexico before 2025. Main conclusions Mechanisms that could explain the species’ success in establishing viable populations outside its native distribution include its dispersion ability, competitive release, the urban heat island phenomenon and the trade of wild birds. The geographic range expansion of the Rufous‐backed Robin will probably create new interactions with other species, particularly with close taxonomic and ecological relatives. The increase in the distribution range of the Rufous‐backed Robin has resulted from direct and indirect human‐induced dispersion; therefore, it cannot be considered a fading endemism. In part of its expanded range (to date the Mexican Central Highlands), it should be considered an invasive alien species.     

Investigations on the variability of four genetic serum protein markers in Poland.

198 unrelated male and female Poles from Ostrów Wielkopolski (Central Poland) and 228 unrelated male and female Kashubes from Ko?cierzyna (Northern Poland) have been typed for four polymorphic serum protein systems: HP, TF, GC, and PI. Phenotype and allele frequencies of all these four polymorphic systems are quite different between Poles and Kashubes. Comparisons with some other Central and East European population samples (Slovaks, Hungarians, Matyos, Gypsies) revealed a considerable genetic heterogeneity among them. Genetic distance analysis showed that Hungarians and Matyos as well as Poles and Slovaks are found in two subclusters, which are linked up to one cluster. Gypsies and especially Kashubes exhibit a distinct position from this cluster. This genetic distance pattern can be explained satisfactorily considering the ethnohistory of the population groups under study.     

Regional differences in craniofacial diversity and the population history of Jomon Japan

The people associated with the Jomon culture, the Neolithic inhabitants of Japan, are one of the key groups in the population history of East Asia, because they retain many archaic characters that may be traced back to Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter–gatherers. In this study, the regional diversity of the Jomon skeletal series was estimated by applying the R‐matrix method to 34 craniofacial measurements. The patterns of intraregional variation indicate little effect on the genetic structure of the Jomon from long‐term gene flow stemming from an outside source. The regional diversities were further estimated by pooling all individuals into regional aggregates, and by computing the mean variance within local groups in each region. Although the pattern of phenotypic variation differs depending on the unit of analysis, the gradient of the diversity retains its identity. The Hokkaido region, the northernmost part of the Japanese archipelago, has the highest variance, followed by the regions of eastern Japan, while the southwestern regions have the lowest variance. These findings suggest that the Jomon ancestors of the northern part of Japan might have expanded southward to Honshu Island. Global analyses including samples from Eurasia, Africa, and Australia dating roughly to the same chronological periods as those of the Jomon samples, indicate that the Jomon cranial series share part of their ancestral gene pool with early northeastern Asians. The present findings support the archeologically suggested population growth and expansion in the northern half of the Eurasian continent during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.