The classification of the generic segregates of Phrygilanthus (= Notanthera) of the Loranthaceae

The taxonomic composition ofPhrygilanthus has long been a source of confusion. Until recently the genus was considered to be distributed from Mexico, Central and South America, to Australia, New Guinea, and the Philippines. Analyses of floral morphology, inflorescence structure, life form, fruit type, and especially chromosome numbers indicate thatPhrygilanthus, as classically circumscribed, is a highly heterogeneous and artificial assemblage containing elements now referable to the following ten genera:Cecarria, Desmaria, Gaiadendron, Ligaria, Muellerina, Notanthera, Psittacanthus, Struthanthus, Tripodanthus, andTristerix. Phrygilanthus itself is nomenclaturally illegitimate and must be replaced by Notanthera. A synopsis of the genera segregated from thePhrygilanthus group is included. A key to the New World genera of Loranthaceae is also appended as well as a nomenclator indicating the present generic status of taxa at one time or another assigned toPhrygilanthus. One genus,Cecarria, is described as new; five new combinations are made:Cecarria obtusifolia (Merr.) Barlow,Psittacanthus palmeri (Wats.) Barlow & Wiens,Struthanthus panamensis (Rizzini) Barlow & Wiens,Tristerix aphyllus (DC.) Barlow & Wiens, andTristerix grandiflorus (Ruiz & Pavon) Barlow & Wiens.     

A rejoinder onOryctina (Loranthaceae)

Both of the two main generic features ofOryctina (Loranthaceae), i.e., its dioeciousness and its absence of floral bracteoles, are based on misinterpretations. Instead, both species appear to be monoecious, and both are bracteolate. Nevertheless,Oryctina should be maintained as a distinct genus, probably most closely related toMaracanthus.     

A second species of Ligaria (Loranthaceae)

The combinationLigaria teretiflora (Rizzini) Kuijt is proposed, based onPsittacanthus teretiflorus Rizzini, adding a second species to the genus.Ligaria teretiflora differs fromL. cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pavón) Van Tieghem in having articulated pedicels and obovate leaves which lack a necrotic apex.     

A second Brazilian species of Ixocactus (Loranthaceae)

A large-leaved, apparently dioecious species ofIxocactus,I. macrophyllus, is described from Brazil.     

A new species of Oryctina (Loranthaceae) from Guyana

A new species ofOryctina (Loranthaceae) from Guyana,O. atrolineata Kuijt is described and illustrated. It possesses one-flowered inflorescences, the flowers being hexamerous and each subtended by a bract and two minute bracteoles. A peculiarity of the style is a distinctive fusiform, subterminal swelling.Oryctina atrolineata is closely related, and similar to,O. myrsinites (Eichler) Kuijt.     

Validation and redescription ofOryctina (Loranthaceae)

The formerly obscure genusOryctina v.Tiegh. is redescribed and validated. It is shown to include two species, an old one, previously known asOryctanthus scabridus Eichl., nowOryctina scabrida (Eichl.) v.Tiegh., and a new one,Oryctina subaphylla Rizz., both from Brazil.     

Flavonols from Scurrula ferruginea Danser (Loranthaceae)

Three natural flavonols compounds have been isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction of Scurrula ferruginea Danser (Loranthaceae). Besides quercetin and quercitrin, an unusual flavonol glycoside 4"-O-acetylquercitrin was isolated. Structures were determined using spectroscopic methods including UV, NMR and HRMS-EI. The incidence of 4"-O-acetylquercitrin, not previously reported in the Loranthaceae, is discussed. Cytotoxic evaluation on four human cancer cell lines showed quercetin to be the most active with IC50 of 35 microM on U251 (human glioblastoma cells).     

Dispersal of the winged fruits of Nuytsia floribunda (Loranthaceae)

Fruits of the tree Nuytsia floribunda are dispersed by wind during autumn to mid-winter when conditions are suitable for germination. While the greatest density of fallen fruits occurs beneath the canopy, most are dispersed well beyond the tree in the direction of the prevailing west-southwesterly winds, with a minor peak corresponding to the easterlies. A multiple regression equation, which accounted for 77.5% of variance, was derived to account for the greatest dispersal distance per tree. This comprises, in decreasing order of importance, tree height, log (fruit load), and leeward and windward plant cover in the vertical plane. Extrapolation indicated a maximum distance of about 50 m can be expected, which is insufficient to account for the location of at least 6.5% of adult trees at the study site. This supports other evidence that suckering may play a major role in the spread of this species. Additional experiments confirmed the importance of wind velocity in the distance reached by fruits and the absence of biotic dispersal agents.     

Sustainable utilization of woodrose-producing mistletoes (Loranthaceae) in South Africa

Pedistylis galpinii and Erianthemum dregei produce woodrose outgrowths at attachment points with host trees. In some rural areas of southern Africa, woodroses are sold as curios. The socio-economics related to woodrose harvesters were investigated via interview schedules and field survey. Harvesting is not detrimental to hosts as only branches infected with mistletoes are cut. Over half the harvesters interviewed reported harvesting both live and dead mistletoes while 20% used only dead ones. The density of dead mistletoes could satisfy present demand. Such sustainable harvesting practices (only using dead woodroses) allow for woodrose harvesting according to calculated quotas. The median gross income per month generated from woodroses was estimated to be between US $38 and 90. Eleven percent of harvesters relied on woodroses as their only source of income. Marketing was relatively haphazard, involving informal selling at roadsides and unscheduled visits to retailers. The market for woodroses can be expanded and the potential exists to increase supply considerably on a sustainable basis.     

Evolutionary relationships in the showy mistletoe family (Loranthaceae)

Loranthaceae (73 genera and ca. 900 species) comprise mostly aerial hemiparasitic plants. Three monotypic genera considered relicts are root parasites. The family is diverse in tropical areas, but representatives are also found in temperate habitats. Previous classifications were based on floral and inflorescence morphology, karyological information, and biogeography. The family has been divided into three tribes: Nuytsiae, Elytrantheae (subtribes Elytranthinae and Gaiadendrinae), and Lorantheae (subtribes Loranthinae and Psittacanthinae). Nuytsiae and Elytrantheae are characterized by a base chromosome number of x = 12, whereas subtribes Loranthinae (x = 9) and Psittacanthinae (x = 8) numbers are derived via aneuploid reduction. To elucidate the phylogeny of the family, we analyzed sequences from five genes (nuclear small and large subunit rDNA and the chloroplast genes rbcL, matK, and trnL-F) representing most genera using parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian inference. The three root parasites, Nuytsia, Atkinsonia, and Gaiadendron, are supported as successive sister taxa to the remaining genera, resulting in a monophyletic group of aerial parasites. Three major clades are resolved each corresponding to a subtribe. However, two South American genera (Tristerix and Notanthera) and the New Zealand genus Tupeia, which were previously classified in subtribe Elytranthinae, are weakly supported as part of a clade representing the South American subtribe Psittacanthinae.     

A re-evaluation of a green-flowered asarum (Aristolochiaceae) from southern Oregon

A green-flowered wild ginger from southern Oregon, previously namedAsarum caudatum Lindl. var.viridiflorum Peck, is recognized as an independent species,A. wagneri Lu & Mesler, illustrated and discussed.     

A re-evaluation of species limits in Chaetobromus (Danthonieae: Poaceae)

Past changes in the taxonomy of Chaetobromus , a Cape grass with considerable fodder potential, reflect a history of instability due to inadequate past sampling and intergradation among taxa in most characters. This biosystematic study differs from earlier investigations by its much more intensive approach to sampling, taking into consideration inter- and intrapopulational variation in 75 anatomical, morphological and cytological characters, across a total of 169 samples. Both phenetic methods and population aggregation analysis revealed the existence of three major groups, approximating three formerly described taxa and reflecting divergent ecological strategies in Chaetobromus . However, continuity among groups in most characters and a lack of clear-cut diagnostic field characters argues against their recognition at species level. Thus, Chaetobromus is here described as monotypic, the type species, C. involucratus , comprising three subspecies C. involucratus ssp. involucratus, C. involucratus ssp. sericeus and C. involucratus ssp. dregeanus .     

Anatomy of the endophyte of Viscum album L. (Loranthaceae)

Anatomy of the endophyte of Viscum album L. (Loranthaceae). An anatomical investigation into the nature of the host-parasite interaction of V. album and several of its phanerogamic hosts using SEM and light microscopy was conducted. Three kinds of parasite cell (haustorial parenchyma cells, cells resembling transfer cells and haustorial tracheids) were identified at the host-parasite interface. The terms haustorial parenchyma and haustorial tracheid are defined. Haustorial tracheids were seen to have penetrated the walls of host vessel elements and it is suggested that V. album is able to establish on a wide range of hosts because of the anatomically plastic nature of its haustorium. The development of the haustorium depends to a large extent on the nature of the surrounding host tissues. Parasite-induced host abnormalities including hypertrophy, distorted xylem elements, vessel-wall penetration and tylosis-occluded vessels were observed. The macroanatomical features observed are discussed and interpreted by-proposing a new theory for the ontogenesis of the V. album haustorium. Cortical strands with 'chisel' and 'pencil' shaped apices were both found to be present at the same time on one plant and thus were not seasonally separated.     

A re-evaluation of the phylogenetic relationships in the Apidae (Hymenoptera)

ABSTRACT .
The relationships between the four tribes in the bee family Apidae are re-examined. Characteristics of the postgena, presternum, antenna cleaner, arolium, female hind tibia and male genitalia, among others, support the placement of these tribes in three subfamilies: Meliponinae (Meliponini), Apinae (Apini) and Bombinae (Euglossini + Bombini). The Apinae is the sister group of the Bombinae. This tribal arrangement was originally proposed, using different characteristics, by Winston & Michener (1977).     

Morphology,biology, and systematic relationships ofDesmaria (Loranthaceae)

Desmaria mutabilis is unique inLoranthaceae in having dimorphic shoots, the short shoots producing a terminal inflorescence. Other unusual features in the family are well differentiated bud scales and deciduousness. The normal position of mature plants on the trunks of large trees is shown to be a consequence of profuse vegetative reproduction from the epicortical roots, the predominant growth direction of the latter towards the trunk from the original site of establishment on a lateral branch, and the ability of epicortical roots to generate haustorial contacts through heavy host bark. The seedling is heterocotylar, one cotyledon being phanerocotylar, the other cryptocotylar and functioning as a haustorial organ in the endosperm. It is suggested thatDesmaria is a member of the primitive complex of loranthaceous genera which includesGaiadendron.     

Endothecial thickenings in the another wall ofPhthirusa adunca (Loranthaceae)

The thickenings in the anther wall ofPhthirusa adunca are confined to the endothecium. This observation resembles the previous report onP. pyrifolia.     

Host specificity in parasitic mistletoes (Loranthaceae) in New Zealand

1. We quantify the degree of host specificity for the five extant New Zealand loranthaceous mistletoes ( Alepis flavida, Ileostylus micranthus, Peraxilla colensoi, Peraxilla tetrapetala and Tupeia antarctica ).
2. Host specificity is highest for A. flavida, P. colensoi and P. tetrapetala which primarily parasitize species of Nothofagus , and lowest for T. antarctica and especially I. micranthus which parasitize a wide range of host species.
3. These patterns of host specificity support the suggestion that relative host abundance is a key factor determining the degree of host specialization in mistletoes (resource fragmentation hypothesis). While evolutionary history may be important in the specificity of the mistletoe–host relationship in some situations, our data suggest that for New Zealand mistletoes evolutionary history simply reflects the temporal component of relative host abundance.
4. We conclude that it is the stability of host availability through time and space which is the dominant factor determining host specificity patterns.     

New species of Acizzia Heslop-Harrison (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) from Australian mistletoe (Loranthaceae)

Three new species of Acizzia are described from Australian mistletoe (Loranthaceae: Amyema spp.). These are: A. loranthacae sp. n., A. amyemae sp. n. and A. pendulae sp. n. They are characterised by: male proctiger with prominent posterior lobe; antenna 1.9–2.9 times width of head; forewing with costal break and pterostigma, with pattern in A. amyemae and A. pendulae but not in A. loranthacae ; and female proctiger simple in A. amyemae and A. pendulae but with prominent dorso-apical process in A. loranthacae . The Loranthaceae is a new host family record for Acizzia . Given the probable radiation of Acizzia on mimosaceous hosts, its occurrence on eucalypt-inhabiting mistletoe, yet its apparent absence from mistletoes on Acacia, is discussed.     

A re-evaluation of morphological characters in European Gentianella section Gentianella (Gentianaceae)

Morphological traits were investigated in Gentianella section Gentianella by morphometrics and Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM). Variation in vegetative measures and in calyx, corolla, ovary, and gynophor was analyzed in populational samples and herbarium material. Special emphasis was given to micro-morphology and variation of papillae on the calyx using SEM. Three types of papillae on the calyx lobes were found: (A) short conical (G. amarella-group, G. insubrica, G. germanica); (B) long conical often curved (G. campestris, G. anisodonta, G. engadinsesis, and G. liburnica; (C) long cylindrical (G. aspera and G. pilosa). G. austriaca, G. caucasea, G. crispata, G. fatrae, and G. ramosa usually lack any papillae. Plants without and with short conical papillae were found in G. bulgarica and G. lutescens as well as in the intermediate taxa G. bohemica and G. stiriaca. The different types of papillae together with other calyx characters (sinus, shape and margin of lobe) are of high systematic importance and provide more stable characters than morphometric flower measures. Principal component and correlation analysis revealed a strong response of nearly all morphometric traits to the environmental variable altitude. Adaptive and historical causes of morphological variation as well as taxonomical consequences are discussed and a determination key is provided.