The use of clostridial spores for cancer treatment

Hypoxic/necrotic regions, absent in normal tissues, can be exploited to target tumours in cancer therapy using nonpathogenic strains of the bacterial genus Clostridium. Following administration of Clostridium spores to tumour-bearing organisms, these spores can only germinate within the hypoxic/necrotic regions of solid tumours, proving their exquisite selectivity. Low oxygen tension is a common feature of solid tumours, which may arise from the unique physiological environment, generated to a large extent by the abnormal tumour vasculature, and provides as such a niche for anaerobic bacteria. Some clostridia tested clearly showed innate oncolytic activity, but they could not completely eradicate the tumour. Recombinant clostridia producing prodrug-converting enzymes or cytokines resulted in the production of such proteins solely within the tumour, and where applicable, could convert the prodrug in a toxic compound. Moreover, in some cases, tumour eradication or tumour control could be observed. This review brings an overview of the relative successes and failures of the Clostridium-directed tumour therapy with both wild-type strains and strains producing proteins useful in antitumour therapy.     

Purification and amino acid sequence of two small, acid-soluble proteins from Clostridium bifermentans spores

Clostridium bifermentans spores contain two major small, acid-soluble, proteins (SASP) termed SASP-alpha and beta. The amino acid sequences of SASP-alpha and beta are almost identical, and are very similar to those of alpha/beta-type SASP from spores of C. perfringens and various Bacillus species. However, the C. bifermentans proteins contain an extra five amino acids in the middle of their sequence. Surprisingly, no gamma-type SASP were found in C. bifermentans or C. perfringens spores, although these are the most prominent SASP in spores of Bacillus species.     

Improvement of Clostridium tumour targeting vectors evaluated in rat rhabdomyosarcomas

Previous studies have demonstrated the feasibility of using apathogenic clostridia as a promising strategy for hypoxia-specific tumour targeting. The present study shows that the use of the vascular targeting compound combretastatin A-4 phosphate could significantly (P<0.001) increase the number of Clostridium vegetative cells in rat rhabdomyosarcomas with sizes between 0.2 cm(2) and 3 cm(2). Furthermore, this study showed that administration of metronidazole for a 9-day period was sufficient to eliminate systemically administered Clostridium from the tumour. Moreover, previous Clostridium spore administration did not effect tumour colonisation, regardless of the immune response status of the host.     

Nitroreductase-activated nitric oxide (NO) prodrugs

Due to the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in numerous and diverse physiological processes, site-directed delivery of therapeutic NO in order to minimize unwanted side-effects is necessary. O²-(4-Nitrobenzyl) diazeniumdiolates are designed as substrates for Escherichia coli nitroreductase (NTR), an enzyme that is frequently used to facilitate directed delivery of cytotoxic species to cancers. O²-(4-Nitrobenzyl) diazeniumdiolates are found to be stable in aqueous buffer but are metabolized by NTR to produce NO. A cell viability assay revealed that cytotoxic effects of O²-(4-nitrobenzyl)1-(2-methylpiperidin-1-yl)diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolate (4b) towards two cancer cell lines is significantly enhanced in the presence of NTR suggesting the potential for use of this compound in nitric oxide-based directed prodrug therapy.     

Inhibition of the glucosyltransferase activity of clostridial Rho/Ras-glucosylating toxins by castanospermine

Castanospermine was identified as an inhibitor of the Rho/Ras-glucosylating Clostridium sordellii lethal toxin and Clostridium difficile toxin B. Microinjection of castanospermine into embryonic bovine lung cells prevented the cytotoxic effects of toxins. The crystal structure of the glucosyltransferase domain of C. sordellii lethal toxin in complex with castanospermine, UDP and a calcium ion was solved at a resolution of 2.3A. The inhibitor binds in a conformation that brings its four hydroxyl groups and its N-atom almost exactly in the positions of the four hydroxyls and of the ring oxygen of the glucosyl moiety of UDP-glucose, respectively.     

Quantification of small GTPase glucosylation by clostridial glucosylating toxins using multiplexed MRM analysis

Large clostridial toxins mono‐O‐glucosylate small GTPases of the Rho and Ras subfamily. As a result of glucosylation, the GTPases are inhibited and thereby corresponding downstream signaling pathways are disturbed. Current methods for quantifying the extent of glucosylation include sequential [¹⁴C]glucosylation, sequential [³²P]ADP‐ribosylation, and Western Blot detection of nonglucosylated GTPases, with neither method allowing the quantification of the extent of glucosylation of an individual GTPase. Here, we describe a novel MS‐based multiplexed MRM assay to specifically quantify the glucosylation degree of small GTPases. This targeted proteomics approach achieves a high selectivity and reproducibility, which allows determination of the in vivo substrate pattern of glucosylating toxins. As proof of principle, GTPase glucosylation was analyzed in CaCo‐2 cells treated with TcdA, and glucosylation kinetics were determined for RhoA/B, RhoC, RhoG, Ral, Rap1, Rap2, (H/K/N)Ras, and R‐Ras2.     

New approach for selective separation of dilute products from simulated clostridial fermentation broths using cyclodextrins

The ability of cyclodextrins (CD) to form crystalline insoluble complexes with organics was explored in this study in view of a selective separation of dilute products obtainable from three clostridial fermentation systems. To this purpose, a product or a product mixture at a concentration of 0.150 mM each were treated with alpha-CD or beta-CD (0.150 mM) in aqueous solutions as well as in a nutrient broth as a simulated fermentation medium. In the acetone-butanol-ethanol system, and in the butanol-iso-propanol system, alpha-CD was found to precipitate selectively 48% and 46% butanol after 1 h agitation at 30 degrees C. However, beta-CD was found to be superior for the butyric acid-acetic acid system because it selectively precipitated 100% butyric acid under the same conditions. Cooling the three product system with alpha-CD to 4 degrees C for 24 h increased significantly the crop of precipitates but decreased the selectivity for either butanol or butyric acid. Cyclodextrins were thus shown to offer potentially a new exciting possibility for downstream processing of low-concentration fermentation products.     

Detection of Clostridium tyrobutyricum spores using polyclonal antibodies and flow cytometry

Aims: The present work investigates the feasibility of using flow cytometry (FCM) combined with fluorescent‐labelled specific polyclonal antibodies for the detection and presumptive identification of Clostridium tyrobutyricum spores in bovine milk. Methods and Results: Two fluorescent molecules (fluorescein isothiocyanate and Alexa Fluor 488) were conjugated to antispores polyclonal antibodies. Side scatter and forward scatter profiles of the Cl. tyrobutyricum spores marked with fluorescent antibodies permitted the detection of spores and differentiated them from other related microbial species. The detection limit of this method was 10³ spores per 100 ml of milk, and results could be achieved in 2 h. Conclusions: FCM combined with fluorochrome‐conjugated antibodies, especially Alexa Fluor, could be an efficacious means to detect and provide presumptive identification of Cl. tyrobutyricum spores, as well as differentiation from other Clostridium species that can also cause late blowing in cheese. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study describes the basis for the development of a method suitable for analysis of milk destined for cheese manufacture that would permit the detection of Cl. tyrobutyricum spores in a short period. This would enable the industry to use contaminated milk for dairy products other than cheese where Cl. tyrobutyricum does not cause a problem.     

Targeted enzyme prodrug therapy for metastatic prostate cancer – a comparative study of L-methioninase,purine nucleoside phosphorylase,and cytosine deaminase

Background

Enzyme prodrug therapy shows promise for the treatment of solid tumors, but current approaches lack effective/safe delivery strategies. To address this, we previously developed three enzyme-containing fusion proteins targeted via annexin V to phosphatidylserine exposed on the tumor vasculature and tumor cells, using the enzymes L-methioninase, purine nucleoside phosphorylase, or cytosine deaminase. In enzyme prodrug therapy, the fusion protein is allowed to bind to the tumor before a nontoxic drug precursor, a prodrug, is introduced. Upon interaction of the prodrug with the bound enzyme, an anticancer compound is formed, but only in the direct vicinity of the tumor, thereby mitigating the risk of side effects while creating high intratumoral drug concentrations. The applicability of these enzyme prodrug systems to treating prostate cancer has remained unexplored. Additionally, target availability may increase with the addition of low dose docetaxel treatment to the enzyme prodrug treatment, but this effect has not been previously investigated. To this end, we examined the binding strength and the cytotoxic efficacy (with and without docetaxel treatment) of these enzyme prodrug systems on the human prostate cancer cell line PC-3.

Results

All three fusion proteins exhibited strong binding; dissociation constants were 0.572 nM for L-methioninase-annexin V (MT-AV), 0.406 nM for purine nucleoside phosphorylase-annexin V (PNP-AV), and 0.061 nM for cytosine deaminase-annexin V (CD-AV). MT-AV produced up to 99% cell death (p < 0.001) with limited cytotoxicity of the prodrug alone. PNP-AV with docetaxel created up to 78% cell death (p < 0.001) with no cytotoxicity of the prodrug alone. CD-AV with docetaxel displayed up to 60% cell death (p < 0.001) with no cytotoxicity of the prodrug alone. Docetaxel treatment created significant increases in cytotoxicity for PNP-AV and CD-AV.

Conclusions

Strong binding of fusion proteins to the prostate cancer cells and effective cell killing suggest that the enzyme prodrug systems with MT-AV and PNP-AV may be effective treatment options. Additionally, low-dose docetaxel treatment was found to increase the cytotoxic effect of the annexin V-targeted therapeutics for the PNP-AV and CD-AV systems.     

Development and validation of stable reference materials for food microbiology using Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens spores

Aims: To develop a new type of microbiological Reference Materials (RMs), displaying long‐term stability at room temperature. The purpose was to produce and validate two batches of RMs for the enumeration of Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens. Methods and Results: The RMs were based on spores of B. cereus and Cl. perfringens, adsorbed on calcium carbonate pellets. Two batches of 1000 units were manufactured and validated in compliance with ISO guide 35. After verification of their homogeneity, the stability of the ‘RM‐B. cereus’ and ‘RM‐Cl. perfringens’ batches was proven during at least 36 and 9 months, respectively, at room temperature. The validation study was completed by international collaborative trial involving 12 laboratories, allowing the validation of the assigned values. Conclusions: The methodology developed in this work enabled to produce easy‐to‐handle and cost‐effective RMs, displaying an unprecedented stability at room temperature, a good homogeneity and a precise and validated assigned value. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study revealed new paths for the development of stable microbiological RMs. Overcoming the intrinsic instability of the living cells makes it possible to produce valuable tools for the quality assurance of microbiology laboratories.     

Insulin‐like growth factor axis targeting in cancer and tumour angiogenesis – the missing link

Numerous molecular players in the process of tumour angiogenesis have been shown to offer potential for therapeutic targeting. Initially denoted to be involved in malignant transformation and tumour progression, the insulin‐like growth factor (IGF) signalling axis has been subject to therapeutic interference, albeit with limited clinical success. More recently, IGFs and their receptors have received attention for their contribution to tumour angiogenesis, which offers novel therapeutic opportunities. Here we review the contribution of this signalling axis to tumour angiogenesis, the mechanisms of resistance to therapy and the interplay with other pro‐angiogenic pathways, to offer insight in the renewed interest in the application of IGF axis targeting agents in anti‐cancer combination therapies.     

Eukaryotic expression vectors containing genes encoding plant proteins for killing of cancer cells

Background: Gene therapy has attracted attention for its potential to specifically and efficiently target cancer cells with minimal toxicity to normal cells. At present, it offers a promising direction for the treatment of cancer patients. Numerous vectors have been engineered for the sole purpose of killing cancer cells, and some have successfully suppressed malignant tumours. Many plant proteins have anticancer properties; consequently, genes encoding some of these proteins are being used to design constructs for the inhibition of multiplying cancer cells. Results: Data addressing the function of vectors harbouring genes specifically encoding ricin, saporin, lunasin, linamarase, and tomato thymidine kinase 1 under the control of different promoters are summarised here. Constructs employing genes to encode cytotoxic proteins as well as constructs employing genes of enzymes that convert a nontoxic prodrug into a toxic drug are considered here. Conclusion: Generation of eukaryotic expression vectors containing genes encoding plant proteins for killing of cancer cells may permit the broadening of cancer gene therapy strategy, particularly because of the specific mode of action of anticancer plant proteins.     

Gene therapy for pancreatic cancer targeting the genomic alterations of tumor suppressor genes using replication-selective oncolytic adenovirus

In order to develop an effective therapeutic intervention for patients with pancreatic cancer, we examined the genetic alternations of pancreatic cancer. Based on these results, we are developing a new gene therapy targeting the genetic character of pancreatic cancer using mutant adenoviruses selectively replication-competent in tumor cells. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of 30% or more were observed on chromosome arms 17p (47%), 9p (45%), 18q (43%), 12q (34%), and 6q (30%). LOH of 12q, 17p, and 18q showed the significant association with poor prognosis. These data strongly suggest that mutation of the putative suppressor genes, TP53 and SMAD4 play significant roles in the disease progression. Based on this rationale, we are developing a new gene therapy targeting tumors without normal TP53 function. E1B-55kDa-deleted adenovirus (AxE1AdB) can selectively replicate in TP53-deficient human tumor cells but not cells with functional TP53. We evaluated the therapeutic effect of this AxE1AdB on pancreatic cancer without normal TP53 function. The growth of human pancreatic tumor in SCID mice model was markedly inhibited by the consecutive injection of AxE1AdB. Furthermore, AxE1AdB is not only the strong weapon but also useful carrier of genes possessing anti-tumor activities as a virus vector specific to tumors without normal TP53 function. It was reported that uracil phosphoribosyl transferase (UPRT) overcomes 5FU resistance. UPRT catalyzes the synthesis of 5-fluorouridine monophosphate (FUMP) from Uracil and phosphoribosylpyrophosphate (PRPP). The antitumor effect of 5FU is enhanced by augmenting 5-fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate (FdUMP) converted from FUMP, which inhibits Thymidylate Synthetase (TS). The therapeutic advantage of restricted replication competent adenovirus that expresses UPRT (AxE1AdB-UPRT) was evaluatedin an intra-peritoneal disseminated tumor model. To study the anti-tumor effect of AxE1AdB-UPRT/5FU, mice with disseminated AsPC-1 tumors were administered the adenovirus, followed by the 5FU treatment. It was shown that the treatment with AxE1AdB-UPRT/5FU caused a dramatic reduction of the disseminated tumor burden without toxicity in normal tissues. These results revealed thatthe AxE1AdB-UPRT/5FU system is a promising tool for intraperitoneal disseminated pancreatic cancer.     

shRNA沉默卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3的IDO基因表达在体外对NK细胞杀伤作用敏感性的影响

目的通过shRNA沉默吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶（indoleamine2,3-dioxygenase,IDO）基因表达,研究IDO表达在体外对NK细胞杀伤能力的作用。方法 shRNA沉默IDO基因表达质粒和空白质粒分别稳定转染至人卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3,应用Western blot检测IDO在SKOV-3、SKOV-3/Mock和SKOV-3/shIDO细胞中的表达情况,用MTT试剂盒检测3组肿瘤细胞体外生长速度和对NK细胞杀伤作用的敏感性。结果 IDO蛋白在SKOV-3/shIDO细胞中表达被抑制,在SKOV-3和SKOV-3/Mock细胞中有表达。3组肿瘤细胞体外生长曲线比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。SKOV-3/shIDO细胞存活的百分比明显低于其他2组对照（SKOV-3和SKOV-3/Mock）细胞,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论本研究应用shRNA沉默IDO基因表达质粒稳定转染卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3,获得IDO无表达卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3/shIDO,结果显示抑制IDO表达对卵巢癌细胞体外生长速度无影响,但可增强卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3对NK细胞杀伤作用的敏感性。因此,IDO可以作为卵巢癌基因治疗的潜在新靶点,shRNA沉默IDO基因表达可以作为卵巢癌治疗的新方法。     

Efficient protein expression from the endogenous RNA polymerase I promoter using a human ribosomal DNA targeting vector

Vector systems to deliver, integrate and express therapeutic genes in host cells are essential for gene therapy. In the present study, we investigated a novel vector system for integration and expression of a transgene. In this system, the transgene expression was driven by an endogenous RNA polymerase I (Pol I) promoter after being integrated into the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) locus. Human coagulation factor IX coding sequence (FIX), with an internal ribosome entry sites element at its leader region, was targeted into the 18S rDNA locus via homologous recombination. FIX protein expression, which was under the control of the endogenous Pol I promoter, was found to be similar to that of a moderate Pol II promoter. The average FIX expression level of the rDNA recombinants was additionally enhanced to that from a strong Pol II promoter as a result of elimination of position effects. Our data suggest the possibility of applying this system in gene therapy for hereditary diseases.