Getting the mOST from OST: Role of organic solute transporter,OSTα-OSTβ, in bile acid and steroid metabolism

The organic solute transporter (OST)(alpha)-OST(beta) is an unusual heteromeric carrier expressed in a variety of tissues including the small intestine, colon, liver, biliary tract, kidney, and adrenal gland. In polarized epithelial cells, OSTα-OSTβ protein is localized on the basolateral membrane and functions in the export or uptake of bile acids and steroids. This article reviews recent results including studies of knockout mouse models that provide new insights to the role of OSTα-OSTβ in the compartmentalization and metabolism of these important lipids.     

Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity and bile acid synthesis in hepatocytes of unwearied and weaned pigs in monolayer culture

Activity of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (EC 1.14.13.17) in freshly isolated hepatocytes from unweaned piglets (2 to 3 weeks old) was 16-times lower as compared to hepatocytes from weaned piglets (7 to 8 weeks old). The monolayer culture activity of the enzyme remained low in unweaned piglet hepatocytes. In contrast, in cultured hepatocytes from weaned piglets, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity declined during the first day of culture, but was restored during the next 2 culture days, provided that fetal bovine serum (10%) was added to the culture medium. Addition of dexamethasone (50 nM) and insulin (135 nM) to the medium, further enhanced cholesterol 7α-hydroxyease activity to values similar to those in freshly isolated hepatocytes and retarded the decline of enzyme activity after the 3rd culture day. Cultured hepatocytes from weaned and unweaned piglets synthesized similar types of bile acids from [¹⁴C]cholesterol. among which hyocholic acid (the most prominent), hyodeoxycholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid, murocholic acid and lithocholic acid could be identified. 95% of radiolabelled bile acids synthesized was conjugated, mainly with glycine, but also with taurine, sulfate and glucuronic acid. The rate of mass production of bile acids by cultured hepatocytes of weaned piglets (as measured by gas-chromatography) parallelled cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity, and was low in the absence of serum, but increased in medium containing fetal bovine serum, dexamethasone and insulin to a rate lying in the range of 75% of the in vivo bile acid production during the 3rd culture day. Bile acid production by unweaned piglet hepatocytes was 3-times lower under these conditions. It is concluded that hepatocytes from young weaned pigs cultured in medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum, offer a suitable in vitro model for the study of bile acid synthesis, in view of the high cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activities and bile acid production rates.     

Metabolism of 3α, 7α-dihydrexy-7β-methyl-5β-cholanoic acid and 3α,7β-dihydroxy-7α-methyi-5β-cholanoic acid in hamsters

The metabolic fate of the bile add analogs, 3α,7α-dihydroxy-7β-methyl-5β-cholanoic acid and 3α,7β-dihydroxy-7α-methyl-5β-cholanoic acid, was investigated and compared with that of chenodeoxycholic acid in hamsters. Both bile acid analogs were absorbed rapidly from the intestine and excreted into bile at similar to that of chenodeoxycholic acid. In the strain of hamster studied, the biliary bile were conjugated with both glycine and taurine. After continuous intravenous infusion, chenodeoxycholic acid the analogs became the major bile acid constituents in bile. After oral administration of a single dose of these compounds, fecal analysis revealed the existence of unchanged material (25–35%) as well as considerable amounts of metabolites (65–75%). The major metabolites excreted into feces were more polar than the starting material and were tentatively identified as trifaydroxy-7-methyl compounds by radioactive thin-layer chromatography. However, monohydroxy compounds were also found in the fecal extracts. These results show that chenodeoxycholic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid with a methyl group at the 7-position are resistant to bacterial 7-dehydroxylation than the normally occurring bile acids and that a certain proportion of these analogs is hydroxylated to give the corespondiag trihydroxy compound(s), In a control experiment, about 5% of administered chenodeoxychoulic acid was metabolized to a trihydroxy feile acid, but most of the compound (95%) was transformed into lithocholic acid.     

Identification and characterization of two bile acid coenzyme A transferases from Clostridium scindens, a bile acid 7α-dehydroxylating intestinal bacterium

The human bile acid pool composition is composed of both primary bile acids (cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid) and secondary bile acids (deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid). Secondary bile acids are formed by the 7α-dehydroxylation of primary bile acids carried out by intestinal anaerobic bacteria. We have previously described a multistep biochemical pathway in Clostridium scindens that is responsible for bile acid 7α-dehydroxylation. We have identified a large (12 kb) bile acid inducible (bai) operon in this bacterium that encodes eight genes involved in bile acid 7α-dehydroxylation. However, the function of the baiF gene product in this operon has not been elucidated. In the current study, we cloned and expressed the baiF gene in E. coli and discovered it has bile acid CoA transferase activity. In addition, we discovered a second bai operon encoding three genes. The baiK gene in this operon was expressed in E. coli and found to encode a second bile acid CoA transferase. Both bile acid CoA transferases were determined to be members of the type III family by amino acid sequence comparisons. Both bile acid CoA transferases had broad substrate specificity, except the baiK gene product, which failed to use lithocholyl-CoA as a CoA donor. Primary bile acids are ligated to CoA via an ATP-dependent mechanism during the initial steps of 7α-dehydroxylation. The bile acid CoA transferases conserve the thioester bond energy, saving the cell ATP molecules during bile acid 7α-dehydroxylation. ATP-dependent CoA ligation is likely quickly supplanted by ATP-independent CoA transfer.     

Biosynthesis of 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropane and 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropan-7β-ol in Datura

Datura meteloides; plants were fed with tiglic acid-[-¹⁴C] via the roots and after 2 days the percentage incorporation into the alkaloids 3α-tigloyloxytropane, 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropane, meteloidine and 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropan-7β-ol were 15·2, 1·82, 2·2 and 1·8 respectively. 3α,6β-Ditigloyloxytropane was partially hydrolysed to 6β-hydroxy-3α-tigloyloxytropane which contained 58·1% of the radioactivity of the original base, whereas 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropan-7β-ol gave meteloidine containing only 9·2% of the original activity. The results suggest that the di- and tri-hydroxytropanes may be formed by different routes.     

Evoked effects of oestradiol on hepatic cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase and drug oxidase in castrated rats

• 1.1. Oestradiol administration in castrated rats resulted in an increased activity of the cholesterolα-hydroxylase and a decreased activity of the drug oxidase enzyme systems.
• 2.2. Aqueous solutions of oestradiol (up to 25·10⁻⁶M) incubated in vitro with microsomes, binds into the microsomal membrane framework reducing the activity of both enzyme systems.
• 3.3. The specific activity of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase. drops after 3 hr preincubation with oestradiol to at least 70% of its original value.
• 4.4. Actinomycin D and cycloheximide administration reduced the oestradiol-induced and control cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity to the same level, 6 hr after the injections.

     

Screening of mycelial fungi for 7α- and 7β-hydroxylase activity towards dehydroepiandrosterone

In total, 481 fungal strains were screened for the ability to carry out 7(α/β)-hydroxylation of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA, 3β-hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one). Representatives of 31 genera of 15 families and nine orders of ascomycetes, 17 genera of nine families and two orders of zygomycetes, two genera of two families and two orders of basidiomycetes, and 14 genera of mitosporic fungi expressed 7(α/β)-hydroxylase activity. The majority of strains were able to introduce a hydroxyl group to position 7α. Active strains selectively producing 3β,7α-dihydroxy-5-androsten-17-one were found among Actinomucor, Backusella, Benjaminiella, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Phycomyces and Trichothecium, with the highest yield of 1.25 and 1.9 g L^?1 from 2 and 5 g L^?1 DHEA, respectively, reached with F. oxysporum. Representatives of Acremonium, Bipolaris, Conidiobolus and Curvularia formed 3β,7β-dihydroxy-5-androsten-17-one as a major product from DHEA. The structures of the major steroid products were confirmed by TLC, gas chromatography (GC), mass spectra (MS), and ¹H-NMR analyses.     

The suppressive effect of the catatoxic steroid,pregnenolone-16α-carbonitrile,on liver microsomal cholesterol-7α-hydroxylase

The effect of the catatoxic steroid, 3β-hydroxy-20-oxo-5-pregnene-16α-carbonitrile [pregnenolone-16α-carbonitrile (PCN)] on hepatic microsomal cholesterol-7α-hydroxylase, the probable rate-limiting enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis, has been studied. Short term administration (3 days) of PCN in the diet of rats resulted in a significant decrease in the liver microsomal cholesterol-7α-hydroxylase activity, in contrast to a marked stimulation of microsomal cytochrome P-450 and ethylmorphine demethylase activity. PCN significantly depressed the cholesterol-7α-hydroxylase activity in the livers of rats with elevated levels of the enzyme produced by cholestyramine feeding. The results indicate the presence of separate control mechanisms in the regulation of bile acid synthesis and drug metabolism.     

Hepatic bile acid metabolism and expression of cytochrome P450 and related enzymes are altered in Bsep −/− mice

The bile salt export pump (BSEP/Bsep; gene symbol ABCB11/Abcb11) translocates bile salts across the hepatocyte canalicular membrane into bile in humans and mice. In humans, mutations in the ABCB11 gene cause a severe childhood liver disease known as progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 2. Targeted inactivation of mouse Bsep produces milder persistent cholestasis due to detoxification of bile acids through hydroxylation and alternative transport pathways. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether functional expression of hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) and microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH) is altered by Bsep inactivation in mice and whether bile acids regulate CYP and mEH expression in Bsep ^?/? mice. CYP expression was determined by measuring protein levels of Cyp2b, Cyp2c and Cyp3a enzymes and CYP-mediated activities including lithocholic acid hydroxylation, testosterone hydroxylation and alkoxyresorufin O-dealkylation in hepatic microsomes prepared from female and male Bsep ^?/? mice fed a normal or cholic acid (CA)-enriched diet. The results indicated that hepatic lithocholic acid hydroxylation was catalyzed by Cyp3a/Cyp3a11 enzymes in Bsep ^?/? mice and that 3-ketocholanoic acid and murideoxycholic acid were major metabolites. CA feeding of Bsep ^?/? mice increased hepatic Cyp3a11 protein levels and Cyp3a11-mediated testosterone 2β-, 6β-, and 15β-hydroxylation activities, increased Cyp2b10 protein levels and Cyp2b10-mediated benzyloxyresorufin O-debenzylation activity, and elevated Cyp2c29 and mEH protein levels. We propose that bile acids upregulate expression of hepatic Cyp3a11, Cyp2b10, Cyp2c29 and mEH in Bsep ^?/? mice and that Cyp3a11 and multidrug resistance-1 P-glycoproteins (Mdr1a/1b) are vital components of two distinct pathways utilized by mouse hepatocytes to expel bile acids.     

Microbiological degradation of bile acids. Ring a cleavage and 7α,12α-dehydroxylation of cholic acid by Arthrobacter simplex

The metabolism of cholic acid by Arthrobacter simplex was investigated. This organism effected both ring a cleavage and elimination of the hydroxyl groups at C-7 and C-12 and gave a new metabolite, (4R)-4-[4alpha-(2-carboxyethyl)-3aalpha-hexahydro-7abeta-methyl-5-oxoindan-1beta-yl]valeric acid, which was isolated and identified through its partial synthesis. A degradative pathway of cholic acid into this metabolite is tentatively proposed, and the possibility that the proposed pathway could be extended to the cholic acid degradation by other microorganisms besides A. simplex is discussed. The possibility that the observed reactions in vitro could occur during the metabolism of bile acids in vivo is considered.     

Transformation of lithocholic acid to a new bile acid, 3α, 15β-dihydroxy-5β-cholanic acid by Cunninghamella blakesleeana ST-22

Summary A fungus identified as Cunninghamella blakesleeana (Lendner) can carry out 15-hydroxylation of lithocholic acid to a new bile acid (3,15-dihydroxy-5-cholanic acid). By optimizing the fermentation conditions, the amount of the product increased from 0.17 g/l to 1.2 g/l. Hydrophilicity measurements and in vitro cholesterol solubilization tests showed that 3, 15-dihydroxy-5-cholanic acid was as effective as ursodeoxycholic acid in cholesterol solubilization.Abbreviations LCA lithocholic acid (3-hydroxy-5-cholanic acid) - 3, 15-DHC (3, 15-dihydroxy-5-cholanic acid) - DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide - CHES 2-[N-cyclohexylamino]ethanesulfonic acid     

Synthesis, aggregation behavior and cholesterol solubilization studies of 16-epi-pythocholic acid (3α,12α,16β-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid)

Synthesis, aggregation behavior and in vitro cholesterol solubilization studies of 16-epi-pythocholic acid (3α,12α,16β-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid, EPCA) are reported. The synthesis of this unnatural epimer of pythocholic acid (3α,12α,16α-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid, PCA) involves a series of simple and selective chemical transformations with an overall yield of 21% starting from readily available cholic acid (CA). The critical micellar concentration (CMC) of 16-epi-pythocholate in aqueous media was determined using pyrene as a fluorescent probe. In vitro cholesterol solubilization ability was evaluated using anhydrous cholesterol and results were compared with those of other natural di- and trihydroxy bile acids. These studies showed that 16-epi-pythocholic acid (16β-hydroxy-deoxycholic acid) behaves similar to cholic acid (CA) and avicholic acid (3α,7α,16α-trihydroxy-5β-cholan-24-oic acid, ACA) in its aggregation behavior and cholesterol dissolution properties.     

Role of sulfhydryl groups in catalytic activity of purified cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase system from rabbit and rat liver microsomes

Electrophoretically homogeneous preparations of cytochrome P-450 LM₄ from cholestyramine-treated rabbits catalyzed 7α-hydroxylation of cholesterol, 12α-hydroxylation of 5β-cholestane-3α,7α-diol and 25-hydroxylation of 5β-cholestane-3α,7α,12α-triol. Dithiothreitol, a disulfide reducing agent, specifically stimulated the cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity severalfold. The 7α-hydroxylase activity was much more sensitive to the sulfhydryl reagents p-chloromercuribenzoate, N-ethylmaleimide and iodoacetamide than the 12α- and 25-hydroxylase activities. Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase activity, inactivated by these reagents, could be reactivated by treatment with dithiothreitol. Similar results were obtained with purified cytochrome P-450 from rat liver microsomes.The results indicate that sulfhydryl groups are more important for cholesterol 7α-hydroxylation than for other C₂₇-steroid hydroxylations.     

Large-scale production of ursodeoxycholic acid from chenodeoxycholic acid by engineering 7α- and 7β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase

Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering - 7α- and 7β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (HSDHs) are key biocatalysts for the biotransformation of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) from...     

The identification and characterization of the c19o3 steroid metabolites of 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol produced by the canine prostate: 5α-androstane-3β, 6α, 17β-triol and 5α-androstane-3β, 7α, 17β-triol

This study has identified the polar metabolites of 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol(3β-diol) produced by the canine prostate. The major metabolite is 5α-androstane-3β, 7α, 17β-triol (7α-triol) accounting for approximately 80% of the total polar metabolites of 3β-diol. The remaining 20% is accounted for exclusively by another triol, 5α-androstane-3β, 6α, 17β-triol(6α-triol). This study has also characterized two enzymatic hydroxylases responsible for respective triol formation: 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol 6α-hydroxylase (6α-hydroxylase) and 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol 7α-hydroxylase (7α-hydroxylase). Both of these irreversible hydroxylases are located in the particulate fraction of the prostate and can utilize either NADH or NADPH as cofactor. Several $\text{in vitro}$ steroid inhibitors of these hydroxylases were identified including cholesterol, estradiol and diethylstilbestrol. Neither of the hydroxylases were found to be decreased by castration (3 months) when expressed as activity/DNA. Using a variety of C₁₉ androstane substrates, 6α- and 7α-triol were found to be major components of the total 3β-hydroxy-5α-androstane metabolites produced by the canine prostate.     

Biliary bile acids in birds of the Cotingidae family: taurine-conjugated (24R,25R)-3α,7α,24-trihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid and two epimers (25R and 25S) of 3α,7α-dihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid

Three C(27) bile acids were found to be major biliary bile acids in the capuchinbird (Perissocephalus tricolor) and bare-throated bellbird (Procnias nudicollis), both members of the Cotingidae family of the order Passeriformes. The individual bile acids were isolated by preparative RP-HPLC, and their structures were established by RP-HPLC, LC/ESI-MS/MS and NMR as well as by a comparison of their chromatographic properties with those of authentic reference standards of their 12α-hydroxy derivatives. The most abundant bile acid present in the capuchinbird bile was the taurine conjugate of C(27) (24R,25R)-3α,7α,24-trihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid, a diastereomer not previously identified as a natural bile acid. The four diastereomers of taurine-conjugated (24ξ,25ξ)-3α,7α,24-trihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid could be distinguished by NMR and were resolved by RP-HPLC. The RRT of the diastereomers (with taurocholic acid as 1.0) were found to be increased in the following order: (24R,25R)<(24S,25R)<(24S,25S)<(24R,25S). Two epimers (25R and 25S) of C(27) 3α,7α-dihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid were also present (as the taurine conjugates) in both bird species. Epimers of the two compounds could be distinguished by their NMR spectra and resolved by RP-HPLC with the (25S)-epimer eluting before the (25R)-epimer. Characterization of the taurine-conjugated (24R,25R)-3α,7α,24-trihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid and two epimers (25R and 25S) of 3α,7α-dihydroxy-5β-cholestan-27-oic acid should facilitate their detection in peroxisomal disease and inborn errors of bile acid biosynthesis.     

Proteolytic degradation of heme-modified hepatic cytochromes P450: A role for phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and the 26S proteasome?

The resident integral hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) proteins, cytochromes P450 (P450s), turn over in vivo with widely varying half-lives. We and others (Correia et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 297, 228, 1992; and Tierney et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 293, 9, 1992) have previously shown that in intact animals, the hepatic P450s of the 3A and 2E1 subfamilies are first ubiquitinated and then proteolyzed after their drug-induced suicide inactivation. Our findings with intact rat hepatocytes and ER preparations containing native P450s and P450s inactivated via heme modification of the protein have revealed that the proteolytic degradation of heme-modified P450s requires a cytosolic ATP-dependent proteolytic system rather than lysosomal or ER proteases (Correia et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 297, 228, 1992). Using purified cumene hydroperoxide-inactivated P450s (rat liver P450s 2B1 or 3A and/or a recombinant human liver P450 3A4) as models, we now document that these heme-modified enzymes are indeed ubiquitinated and then proteolyzed by the 26S proteasome, but not by its 20S proteolytic core. In addition, our studies indicate that the ubiquitination of these heme-modified P450s is preceded by their phosphorylation. It remains to be determined whether, in common with several other cellular proteins, such P450 phosphorylation is indeed required for their degradation. Nevertheless, these findings suggest that the membrane-anchored P450s are to be included in the growing class of ER proteins that undergo ubiquitin-dependent 26S proteasomal degradation.     

Isolation and characterization of a bile acid inducible 7α-dehydroxylating operon in Clostridium hylemonae TN271

Primary bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol in the liver, conjugated to either glycine or taurine and secreted into bile. Bile salts undergo enterohepatic circulation several times each day. During this process, they are biotransformed into a variety of metabolites by gut bacteria. The major biotransformation is the 7α-dehydroxylation of cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid yielding deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid, respectively. 7α-Dehydroxylation is a multi-step pathway. The genes encoding enzymes in this pathway have been identified in two species of “high” activity strains of clostridia. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a bile acid inducible (bai) operon in Clostridium hylemonae, a “low” activity 7α-dehydroxylating strain. The gene organization and sequence of the baiBCDEFGHI operon was highly conserved between C. hylemonae and “high” activity strains. Surprisingly, the baiA gene was missing from the bai operon of C. hylemonae. The baiA gene was isolated using PCR and degenerate oligonucleotide primers. The mRNA start site for the large bai operon was determined and shown to be only 11 bp from the initiation codon of the first gene. It was also discovered that allocholic acid (5α) induced the bai operon and stimulated the conversion of [24-¹⁴C] cholic acid to [24-¹⁴C] allodeoxycholic acid in cultures of C. scindens and C. hylemonae allodeoxycholic acid. Finally, it was discovered that the addition of testosterone to the growth medium markedly increased 7α-dehydroxylation of cholic acid in Clostridium scindens and C. hylemonae. We hypothesize that testosterone may be a gratuitous inducer of genes involved in the reductive arm of the bile acid 7α-dehydroxylation pathway.