Multi‐locus phylogeny of African pipits and longclaws (Aves: Motacillidae) highlights taxonomic inconsistencies

The globally distributed avian family Motacillidae consists of five to seven genera (Anthus, Dendronanthus, Tmetothylacus, Macronyx and Motacilla, and depending on the taxonomy followed, Amaurocichla and Madanga) and 66–68 recognized species, of which 32 species in four genera occur in sub‐Saharan Africa. The taxonomy of the Motacillidae has been contentious, with variable numbers of genera, species and subspecies proposed and some studies suggesting greater taxonomic diversity than currently recognized (five genera and 67 species). Using one nuclear (Mb) and two mitochondrial (cyt b and CO1) gene regions amplified from DNA extracted from contemporary and museum specimens, we investigated the taxonomic status of 56 of the currently recognized motacillid species and present the most taxonomically complete and expanded phylogeny of this family to date. Our results suggest that the family comprises six clades broadly reflecting continental distributions: sub‐Saharan Africa (two clades), the New World (one clade), Palaearctic (one clade), a widespread large‐bodied Anthus clade, and a sixth widespread genus, Motacilla. Within the Afrotropical region, our phylogeny further supports recognition of Wood Pipit Anthus nyassae as a valid species, and the treatment of Long‐tailed Pipit Anthus longicaudatus and Kimberley Pipit Anthus pseudosimilis as junior subjective synonyms of Buffy Pipit Anthus vaalensis and African Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus, respectively. As the disjunct populations of Long‐billed Pipit Anthus similis in southern and East Africa are genetically distinct and geographically separated, we propose a specific status for the southern African population under the earliest available name, Nicholson's Pipit Anthus nicholsoni. Further, as our analyses indicate that Yellow‐breasted Pipit Anthus chloris and Golden Pipit Tmetothylacus tenellus are both nested within the Macronyx longclaws, we propose transferring these species to the latter genus.     

From pampa to puna: Biogeography and diversification of a group of Neotropical obligate grassland birds (Anthus: Motacillidae)

The evolution of Neotropical birds of open landscapes remains largely unstudied. We investigate the diversification and biogeography of a group of Neotropical obligate grassland birds (Anthus: Motacillidae). We use a multilocus phylogeny of 22 taxa of Anthus to test the hypothesis that these birds radiated contemporaneously with the development of grasslands in South America. We employ the R package DDD to analyze the dynamics of Anthus diversification across time in Neotropical grasslands, explicitly testing for shifts in dynamics associated with the Miocene development of grasslands, the putative Pleistocene expansion of arid lowland biomes, and Pleistocene sundering of Andean highland grasslands. A lineage‐through‐time plot revealed increases in the number of lineages, and DDD detected shifts to a higher clade‐level carrying capacity during the late Miocene, indicating an early burst of diversification associated with grassland colonization. However, we could not corroborate the shift using power analysis, probably reflecting the small number of tips in our tree. We found evidence of a divergence at ~1 Mya between northern and southern Amazonian populations of Anthus lutescens, countering Haffer's idea of Pleistocene expansion of open biomes in the Amazon Basin. We used BioGeoBears to investigate ancestral areas and directionality of colonization of Neotropical grasslands. Members of the genus diversified into, out of, and within the Andes, within‐Andean diversification being mostly Pleistocene in origin.     

SPECIES LIMITS IN THE LONG-BILLED PIPITS OF THE SOUTHERN AFROTROPICS

Clancey, P. A. 1985. Species limits in the long-billed pipits of the southern Afrotropics. Ostrich 56:157-169.

It has long been appreciated by systematists that the present polytypic species of Longbilled Pipit Anthus similis of the Afrotropics is composite, the populations inhabiting deciduous Miombo (Brachystegia) woodland south of the equator being specifically distinct from those of drier, more open and often mountainous terrain, to the south and northeast. Resolution of the complex requires the recognition of three species: the Longbilled Pipit Anthus similis Jerdon, the Wood Pipit A. nyassae Neumann and Jackson's Pipit A. latistriatus Jackson in which a new subspecies is proposed. The African Richard's Pipit A. cinna-momeus Rüppell is marginally involved. The current complicated mosaic of sympatric polytypic species of the Miombo woodlands biome extending from western Zaïre and Angola, to southern Tanzania, Moçambique and Zimbabwe results from a situation in which specifically discrete descendants of a primary colonization are sympatric with populations of a lineage resulting from a second colonization. The ancestral stocks are considered to be of Eurasian origin. They have become modified in Africa since the Pleistocene by the interaction of climatic and vegetational oscillations, dieback, subspeciation and adaptive convergence. The Mountain Pipit A. hoeschi of the southeastern highland massif of Africa is seen as a remotely detached isolate stemming from the same ancestral stock as the contemporary Jackson's Pipit A. latistriatus. A revised systematic arrangement of the taxa involved in this enquiry is proposed.     

Diet composition influences annual breeding success of Montagu's Harriers Circus pygargus feeding on diverse prey

Capsule Three similarly sized passerine species with various breeding strategies behaved differently in the presence of models of mammalian and avian predators.

Aims We tested whether solitary breeders behave in the presence of a predator in order to avoid disclosing their nest site in: hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca, shrub-nesting Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla and ground-nesting Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis.

Methods The behaviour of parents in response to two types of predator model (visually oriented Corvid birds and olfactory oriented Mustelid mammals) placed sequentially at 40, 5 and 1 m distance from the nest was recorded from a shelter.

Results The hypothesis was supported in open-nesting species (Meadow Pipit and Blackcap), as parents did not approach the nest in the presence of a predator. In the hole-nesting Pied Flycatcher the parents disclosed the nest site in most cases (by entering the nest). The intensity of alarm calling increased with decreasing distance of a predator from the nest in all species except Meadow Pipit in the presence of Raven Corvus corax models. The intensity of attacking changed only in Meadow Pipit with decreasing distance of Stoat Mustela erminea from the nest.

Conclusion The results showed that anti-predator behaviour was species-specific, depending on type of predator, habitat and nest inaccessibility.     

Breeding ground correlates of the distribution and decline of the Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus at two spatial scales

Many migratory bird species are undergoing population declines as a result of potentially multiple, interacting mechanisms. Understanding the environmental associations of spatial variation in population change can help tease out the likely mechanisms involved. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus populations have declined by 69% in England but increased by 33% in Scotland. The declines have mainly occurred in lowland agricultural landscapes, but their mechanisms are unknown. At both the local scale within the county of Devon (SE England) and at the national (UK) scale, we analysed the breeding season distribution of Cuckoos in relation to habitat variation, the abundance of host species and the abundance of moth species whose caterpillars are a key food of adult Cuckoos. At the local scale, we found that Cuckoos were more likely to be detected in areas with more semi‐natural habitat, more Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis (but fewer Dunnocks Prunella modularis) and where, later in the summer, higher numbers of moths were captured whose larvae are Cuckoo prey. Nationally, Cuckoos have become more associated with upland heath characterized by the presence of Meadow Pipit hosts, and with wetland habitats occupied by Eurasian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus hosts. The core distribution of Cuckoos has shifted from south to north within the UK. By the end of 2009, the abundance of macro‐moth species identified as prey had also declined four times faster than that of species not known to be taken by Cuckoos. The abundance of these moths has shown the sharpest declines in grassland, arable and woodland habitats and has increased in semi‐natural habitats (heaths and rough grassland). Our study suggests that Cuckoos are likely to remain a very scarce bird in lowland agricultural landscapes without large‐scale changes in agricultural practices.     

Saisonale Variation der Aktivit?tsdauer beim Bergpieper (Anthus sp. spinoletta) im Winterquartier

Zusammenfassung Der Aktivitätsrhythmus des Bergpiepers (Anthus sp. spinoletta) wurde an einem im Winterquartier liegenden Schlafplatz über mehrere Jahre beobachtet. Er ordnet sich gut in Muster anderer tagaktiver Vogelarten ein. Als Helligkeitsmaß wurde die 6. Wurzel der Beleuchtungsstärke verwendet.

---

Seasonal variation of activity patterns in the Water Pipit (Anthus sp. spindetta) in a wintering area

Summary The rhythm of activity of Water Pipit (Anthus sp. spinoletta) has been observed at a roosting place during wintertime for several years. It is in conformity with the examples of other day-active species. The measure of lightness was defined by an exponential function, the 6th root of illuminance.

     

Introgression at differentially aged hybrid zones in red-tailed chipmunks

Hybrid zones allow us to investigate the maintenance and the break down of reproductive isolation; they are a window into the speciation process. Tamias ruficaudus (red-tailed chipmunk) has a roughly ring-like distribution in the Inland Northwest and includes two morphologically well-differentiated subspecies, T. r. ruficaudus (in the eastern portion of its range) and T. r. simulans (in the western portion). These taxa meet at two contact zones: the Lochsa River in Idaho and 200 km to the north, near Whitefish, Montana. The Lochsa Zone is encompassed within the Clearwater River Drainage, which has been proposed as a glacial refugium for many taxa throughout the Pleistocene, whereas the Whitefish Zone was under the Cordilleran ice sheet during the most recent glacial maxima approximately 10,000 years ago. Mitochondrial DNA introgression has been documented at both contact zones, yet the subspecies remain significantly distinct with respect to bacular morphology and no intermediate morphologies have ever been reported. Here, we elucidate differentiation and introgression of the nuclear genome using ten microsatellite loci and compare findings to previously described mitochondrial DNA haplotype distribution and introgression. We found significant substructure in the nuclear data; each subspecies is divided into at least two genetically distinct demes. At the Lochsa contact zone, individuals restricted to the mtDNA zone of introgression form a distinct deme at microsatellite loci whereas in the younger, Whitefish contact zone, there is no hybrid-zone specific group. The genetic distances of the demes within these two subspecies indicate recent northward expansion.     

The breeding biology of the endemic Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii in a harsh oceanic island environment (Tenerife,Canary Islands)

We describe the density, breeding and foraging ecology of the Berthelot's Pipit (Anthus berthelotii), an endemic passerine to the Atlantic islands, in the semi-arid coastal scrub of Tenerife. Furthermore, we analyse the effects of temperature and rainfall in the onset of reproduction and the behaviour (nest site and foraging site selection). The average density of the Pipit (using DISTANCE methodology) in the semi-arid coastal scrub was 7.1 birds 10ha^?1, and the overall density estimate in grassland was 3.3 birds 10ha^?1. The Pipit bred early (mean average first-egg laying date 12 February) and in response to rainfall (but not temperature). By the Mayfield method, the probability of the nests surviving the egg stage was 0.77 and of and the nests surviving the chick stage 0.67 — assuming an incubation period of 13 days and a chick stage of 12.5 days — based on the European average for the similar-sized Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis. Overall nest survival pooling stages were 0.51. The Pipits had a low clutch size (3.3 eggs, range of 2–4). Nest damage by heavy rainstorms was the major cause of nest failures (three out of five failures). The Pipits nested preferentially in grass with relatively low densities of Euphorbia balsamifera bushes. Birds selected grassy areas as their main foraging site but also preferred to forage on large rocks during nesting: caterpillars were the main food items (14 out of 17 prey captures).     

Assessment of species limits in African ‘brown buntings’ (Emberiza,Passeriformes) based on mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data

We estimated a phylogeny for 10 taxa currently placed in four polytypic species that collectively encompass the African ‘brown buntings’: Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis, Cinnamon‐breasted Bunting Emberiza tahapisi, Lark‐like Bunting Emberiza impetuani and House Bunting Emberiza striolata. We made use of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and the nuclear introns 6–7 of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), and intron 2 of myoglobin. There was substantial cytochrome b sequence divergence between taxa currently treated as conspecific: sahari vs. striolata (2.6–3.1% (uncorrected‐p); 3.0–3.6% (HKY + I)), and goslingi vs. tahapisi (4.4–4.7% (uncorrected‐p); 5.4–5.9% (HKY + I)). The degree of divergence of the nuclear loci among taxa was limited, and these loci lacked reciprocal monophyly, most likely as a consequence of incomplete lineage sorting. A single representative of the taxon septemstriata, generally treated as a member of the dark‐throated tahapisi group, here appears to be genetically consistent with the grey‐throated goslingi, and may be of hybrid origin. All other taxa allocated to E. striolata and E. tahapisi make up four reciprocally monophyletic groups consistent with sahari, striolata, tahapisi and goslingi, respectively. The extent of genetic evidence suggests that these taxa have been evolving as separate evolutionary lineages for a long time. This is further manifested in several morphological and vocal characteristics described previously, and we propose that these divergent taxa be treated as separate species: Cinnamon‐breasted Bunting Emberiza tahapisi, Gosling's Bunting Emberiza goslingi, Striolated Bunting Emberiza striolata and House Bunting Emberiza sahari. We do not propose any taxonomic changes regarding Emberiza impetuani or Emberiza capensis.     

Genetic analysis of a contact zone between two lineages of the ocellated lizard (Lacerta lepida Daudin 1802) in south‐eastern Iberia reveal a steep and narrow hybrid zone

Measuring the diffusion of genes between diverging taxa through zones of secondary contact is an essential step to understand the extent and nature of the reproductive isolation that has been achieved. Previous studies have shown that the ocellated lizard (Lacerta lepida Daudin, 1802) has endured repeated range fragmentation associated with the climatic oscillations of the Plio‐Pleistocene that promoted diversification of many different evolutionary units within the species. However, the oldest divergence within the group is estimated to have occurred much earlier, during the Miocene, around 9 Ma and corresponds to the split between the subspecies Lacerta lepida nevadensis Buchholz (1963) and Lacerta lepida lepida Daudin (1802). Although these two evolutionary units have documented genetic and morphological differentiation, most probably accumulated during periods of allopatry, little is known about patterns of gene flow between them. In this study, we performed a population genetic analysis of a putative area of secondary contact between these two taxa, using mtDNA and microsatellite data. We assessed levels of gene flow across the contact zone to clarify to what extent gene flow may be occurring. Hybridization between the subspecies was observed by the presence of genetically introgressed individuals. However, the overall coincidence of mitochondrial and multilocus nuclear clines and generally steep clines support the idea that this contact zone is acting as a barrier to gene flow. Taken together, these results suggest that L. l. lepida and L. l. nevadensis are in independent evolutionary trajectories and should be considered as two different species.     

New insights into the systematics of Malagasy mongoose‐like carnivorans (Carnivora,Eupleridae, Galidiinae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences

The Malagasy carnivorans (Eupleridae) comprise seven genera and up to ten species, depending on the authority, and, within the past decades, two new taxa have been described. The family is divided into two subfamilies, the Galidiinae, mongoose‐like animals, and the Euplerinae, with diverse body forms. To verify the taxonomic status of Galidiinae species, including recently described taxa, as well as some recognized subspecies, we studied intrageneric genetic variation and structure, using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Our results suggest the recognition of four species in the Galidiinae, rendering each genus monospecific. We propose to recognize three subspecies in Galidia elegans (G. e. dambrensis, G. e. elegans, and G. e. occidentalis), two subspecies in Mungotictis decemlineata (M. d. decemlineata and M. d. lineata), and two subspecies in Galidictis fasciata (G. f. fasciata and G. f. grandidieri, the latter was recently described as a distinct species). Our results indicate also that Salanoia durrelli should be treated as a junior synonym of Salanoia concolor. Low levels of intraspecific divergence revealed some geographical structure for the Galidiinae taxa, suggesting that environmental barriers have isolated certain populations in recent geological time. All taxa, whether at the species or subspecies level, need urgent conservation attention, particularly those with limited geographical distributions, as all are threatened by forest habitat degradation.     

Y‐chromosome and mtDNA variation confirms independent domestications and directional hybridization in South American camelids

Investigations of genetic diversity and domestication in South American camelids (SAC) have relied on autosomal microsatellite and maternally‐inherited mitochondrial data. We present the first integrated analysis of domestic and wild SAC combining male and female sex‐specific markers (male specific Y‐chromosome and female‐specific mtDNA sequence variation) to assess: (i) hypotheses about the origin of domestic camelids, (ii) directionality of introgression among domestic and/or wild taxa as evidence of hybridization and (iii) currently recognized subspecies patterns. Three male‐specific Y‐chromosome markers and control region sequences of mitochondrial DNA are studied here. Although no sequence variation was found in SRY and ZFY, there were seven variable sites in DBY generating five haplotypes on the Y‐chromosome. The haplotype network showed clear separation between haplogroups of guanaco–llama and vicuña–alpaca, indicating two genetically distinct patrilineages with near absence of shared haplotypes between guanacos and vicuñas. Although we document some examples of directional hybridization, the patterns strongly support the hypothesis that llama (Lama glama) is derived from guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and the alpaca (Vicugna pacos) from vicuña (Vicugna vicugna). Within male guanacos we identified a haplogroup formed by three haplotypes with different geographical distributions, the northernmost of which (Peru and northern Chile) was also observed in llamas, supporting the commonly held hypothesis that llamas were domesticated from the northernmost populations of guanacos (L. g. cacilensis). Southern guanacos shared the other two haplotypes. A second haplogroup, consisting of two haplotypes, was mostly present in vicuñas and alpacas. However, Y‐chromosome variation did not distinguish the two subspecies of vicuñas.     

西藏南部8种鸟类的新分布记录

2016年9和10月,在西藏自治区林芝及日喀则开展鸟类多样性调查期间新记录到8种鸟类,包括白胸翡翠指名亚种(Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis)、黑冠山雀指名亚种(Periparus rubidiventris rubidiventris)和栗腹?指名亚种(Sitta cinnamoventris cinnamoventris)、斑尾鹃鸠(Macropygia unchall)、红喉姬鹟(Ficedula albicilla)、黄胸柳莺(Phylloscopus cantator)、棕脸鹟莺(Abroscopus albogularis)以及田鹨(Anthus richardi)。     

Phylogeography of the chestnut‐tailed antbird (Myrmeciza hemimelaena) clarifies the role of rivers in Amazonian biogeography

Aim We examined patterns of spatial and temporal diversification of the Amazonian endemic chestnut‐tailed antbird, Mymeciza hemimelaena (Thamnophilidae), to evaluate the diversification of a widespread avian taxon across rivers that potentially represent major natural barriers. Location Lowland Amazonia. Methods Sequences of the mitochondrial ND2 and cytochrome b genes were investigated from 65 individuals distributed throughout the entire range of M. hemimelaena, and including the two currently valid subspecies M. h. hemimelaena and M. h. pallens. Based on a combination of phylogeographic tools, molecular dating, and population genetic methods, we reconstructed a spatio‐temporal scenario of diversification of M. hemimelaena in the Amazon. Results The data revealed three genetically divergent and monophyletic groups in M. hemimelaena, which can also be distinguished by a combination of morphological and vocal characters. Two of these clades correspond to the previously described taxa M. h. hemimelaena and M. h. pallens, which are separated by the upper Madeira River, a main Amazonian tributary. The third clade is distributed between the middle reaches of the Madeira River and the much smaller tributaries Jiparaná and Aripuanã, and, although currently treated as M. h. pallens, clearly constitutes an independent evolutionary lineage probably deserving separate species status. Molecular clock and population genetic analyses indicate that diversification in this group occurred throughout the Pleistocene, with demographic fluctuations assumed for M. h. hemimelaena and M. h. pallens. Main conclusions The findings implicate rivers as barriers driving diversification in the M. hemimelaena complex. Levels of mitochondrial DNA divergence and associated morphological and vocal traits support its division into at least three separate species with comparatively small ranges. The existence of a previously unrecognized lineage in the M. hemimelaena complex, and the high degree of population structuring found in M. h. hemimelaena underscore the pervasiveness of cryptic endemism throughout Amazonia and the importance of DNA‐based taxonomic and phylogeographic studies in providing the accurate estimates of diversity that are essential for conservation planning.     

Ligulate Desmarestia (Desmarestiales,Phaeophyceae) revisited: D. japonica sp. nov. and D. dudresnayi differ from D. ligulata

The phylogeny of ligulate and sulfuric‐acid containing species of Desmarestia, occurring worldwide from polar to temperate regions, was revised using a multigenic and polyphasic approach. Sequence data, gametophyte characteristics, and sporophyte morphology support reducing a total of 16 taxa to four different species. (1) D. herbacea, containing broad‐bladed and highly branched forms, has dioecious gametophytes. The three other species have monoecious gametophytes: (2) D. ligulata which is profusely branched and, except for one subspecies, narrow‐bladed, (3) Japanese ligulate Desmarestia, here described as D. japonica sp. nov., which is morphologically similar to D. ligulata but genetically distant from all other ligulate taxa. This species may have conserved the morphology of original ligulate Desmarestia. (4) D. dudresnayi, including unbranched or little branched broad‐bladed taxa. A figure of the holotype of D. dudresnayi, which was lost for decades, was relocated. The taxonomy is complemented by a comparison of internal transcribed spacer and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) as potential barcode loci, with cox1 offering good resolution, reflecting species delimitations within the genus Desmarestia.     

Taxonomy of the Narcissus Flycatcher Ficedula narcissina complex: an integrative approach using morphological,bioacoustic and multilocus DNA data

The taxonomy of the Narcissus Flycatcher Ficedula narcissina–Yellow‐rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia complex from East Asia has long been debated. Most authors recognize two species: F. narcissina, with the subspecies narcissina (most of Japan and Sakhalin Island), owstoni (south Japanese islands) and elisae (northeast China) and F. zanthopygia (monotypic), although species status has been proposed for elisae and sometimes for owstoni. Here, we revise the taxonomy of this complex based on an integrative approach utilizing morphology, songs and mitochondrial and nuclear DNA for all taxa. All taxa were diagnosably different in plumage, and there were also structural differences among them, although the northernmost populations of owstoni (sometimes recognized as jakuschima and shonis) were somewhat intermediate in plumage, structure and male plumage maturation between southern populations of owstoni and narcissina. All taxa had different songs, and a discriminant function analysis of four song variables correctly classified 100% of all songs. A strongly supported phylogeny was recovered based on three mitochondrial genes and three nuclear introns (total of 3543 bp), revealing a sister relationship between F. zanthopygia and the other taxa, between F. n. narcissina and F. n. owstoni, and between F. n. elisae and F. n. narcissina + F. n. owstoni. The corrected COI distances among the three F. narcissina subspecies ranged from 2.8% (narcissina–owstoni) to 8.2% (narcissina–elisae). We suggest that the congruent differences in multiple independent traits and the deep genetic divergences among the four taxa in the F. narcissina–F. zanthopygia complex support treatment of all of these taxa as separate species. However, we acknowledge the paucity of data for F. owstoni and recommend further studies of this taxon. We suggest listing both F. elisae and F. owstoni, which have small and fragmented populations, as globally threatened.     

NESTLING DIETS OF PRAIRIE PASSERINE BIRDS AT MATADOR, SASKATCHEWAN, CANADA

The nestling diets of seven species of grassland passerines were studied from gullet samples collected in 1969–1971 at Matador, Saskatchewan, Canada. Relative population densities on census plots on grazed and ungrazed prairie showed that Horned Lark Eremophila alpestris, McCown's Longspur Calcarius mccownii and Chestnut-collared Longspur C. ornatus preferred grazed areas and Sprague's Pipit Anthus spragueii, Western Meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta, Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis and Baird's Sparrow Ammodramus bairdii preferred ungrazed prairie. Fifteen invertebrate ordinal taxa, and seeds were represented to an important extent in combined gullet contents; but two taxa, Lepidoptera (77% larvae) and grasshoppers (all Acrididae), comprised the bulk of nestling diets. Four grasshopper species contributed 70–100% of grasshoppers eaten in June-August. Overlap at the family level was also high in several other important prey. Comparison with invertebrate populations of ungrazed prairie showed that the birds ignored some abundant taxa of very small invertebrates, and apparently preferred the two least abundant groups which offered large individual prey items. Average nestling food overlap indices for the season among all species except Savannah Sparrow and Baird's Sparrow, based on taxonomic composition, was 0.85. Overlap was moderate in May and June and became very high in July and August. The number of nestlings reached a peak in June and early July when nestling food overlap was much lower than later in the season. Horned Larks avoid competition by nesting earlier than do the other species, while McCown's Longspur, which depends on grasshoppers for nestling food more than do the other species, tends to breed later in the season than the other species. Finally, data suggest that nestling food may be superabundant.     

Genetic differentiation,hybridization and adaptive divergence in two subspecies of the acorn barnacle Tetraclita japonica in the northwestern Pacific

Two acorn barnacles, Tetraclita japonica japonica and Tetraclita japonica formosana, have been recently reclassified as two subspecies, because they are morphologically similar and genetically indistinguishable in mitochondrial DNA sequences. The two barnacles are distinguishable by parietes colour and exhibit parapatric distributions, coexisting in Japan, where T. j. formosana is very low in abundance. Here we investigated the genetic differentiation between the subspecies using 209 polymorphic amplified fragment length polymorphism markers and 341 individuals from 12 locations. The subspecies are genetically highly differentiated (Φ_CT = 0.267). Bayesian analysis and principal component analysis indicate the presence of hybrids in T. j. formosana samples from Japan. Strong differentiation between the northern and southern populations of T. j. japonica was revealed, and a break between Taiwan and Okinawa was also found in T. j. formosana. The differentiation between the two taxa at individual loci does not deviate from neutral expectation, suggesting that the oceanographic pattern which restricts larval dispersal is a more important factor than divergent selection in maintaining genetic and phenotypic differentiation. The T. j. formosana in Japan are probably recent migrants from Okinawa, and their presence in Japan may represent a poleward range shift driven by global warming. This promotes hybridization and might lead to a breakdown of the boundary between the subspecies. However, both local adaptation and larval dispersal are crucial in determining the population structure within each subspecies. Our study provides new insights into the interplay of local adaptation and dispersal in determining the distribution and genetic structure of intertidal biota and the biogeography of the northwestern Pacific.     

Molecular survey of morphological subspecies reveals new mitochondrial lineages in Podarcis muralis (Squamata: Lacertidae) from the Tuscan Archipelago (Italy)

Recent analyses of molecular markers have significantly revised the traditional taxonomy of Podarcis species (Squamata: Lacertidae), leading to critically reconsider the taxonomic value of several subspecies described only on morphological bases. In fact, lizards often exhibit high morphological plasticity both at the intra‐specific and the intra‐population level, especially on islands, where phenotypic divergences are mainly due to local adaptation, rather than to evolutionary differentiation. The Common wall lizard Podarcis muralis exhibits high morphological variability in biometry, pholidosis values and colour pattern. Molecular analyses have confirmed the key role played by the Italian Peninsula as a multi‐glacial refuge for P. muralis, pointing out the lack of congruence between mitochondrial lineages and the four peninsular subspecies currently recognized. Here, we analyse a portion of the protein‐encoding cytochrome b gene in the seven subspecies described for the Tuscan Archipelago (Italy), in order to test whether the mitochondrial haplotypes match the morphologically based taxonomy proposed for Common wall lizard. We also compare our haplotypes with all the others from the Italian Peninsula to investigate the presence of unique genetic lineages in insular populations. Our results do not agree completely with the subspecific division based on morphology. In particular, the phylogenetic analyses show that at least four subspecies are characterized by very similar haplotypes and fall into the same monophyletic clade, whereas the other three subspecies are closer to peninsular populations from central Italy. From these results, we conclude that at least some subspecies could be better regarded as simple eco‐phenotypes; in addition, we provide an explanation for the distinctiveness of exclusive lineages found in the archipelago, which constituted a refuge for this species during last glacial periods.