How well do predation rates on artificial nests estimate predation on natural passerine nests?

Daily survival rates (DSR) of three nest types were compared among three passerine species in woodland habitats of the Czech Republic in 1998‐99. The species were: Yellowhammer (YH) Emberiza citrinella, Blackcap (BC) Sylvia atricapilla, Song Thrush (ST) Turdus philomelos. The nest types were: AA, artificial nests with artificial plastic eggs, both mimicking the real models (total n= 432); NA, natural nests left in their original position and baited with artificial plastic eggs (n= 706); and NN, active natural nests observed during the egg stage (n= 596). Rodents were dominant predators of the near‐ground YH nests while predation by corvids slightly prevailed in the shrub nests of BC and ST. There was no consistent relationship between nest type (AA vs. NA) and type of predator. Effects of nest type (AA vs. NA or AA vs. NN, respectively), species, date and study plot on DSR were examined by fitting logistic regression models. Marginally significant (< P < 0.05) differences were found between AA and NA nests in both years. Due to the interaction with date in 1998, the model predicted lower/higher DSR for AA nests before/after about 25 May respectively. In 1999 the DSR of AA nests was consistently higher (difference: 0.011; 95% CI: 0.001 to 0.021). Marginally significant differences between AA and NN nests were found only in 1998: the DSR of AA nests was consistently lower (‐0.014, 95% CI: ‐0.027 to ‐0.001). Comparisons of mean DSR within each species‐year sample showed that the differences between nest types were of both directions and varied from almost zero to 0.02 (ST, BC; ns) or 0.04 (YH; P < 0.05). Although the experimental nests accurately reflected the mean values as well as seasonal trends and interspecific differences in DSR of the real nests in some subsets of data, the pattern was not consistent across species and between years. This study suggests that artificial nests could not be used to assess survival of natural nests without careful validation of the experimental results.     

A review of predation as a limiting factor for bird populations in mesopredator‐rich landscapes: a case study of the UK

The impact of increasing vertebrate predator numbers on bird populations is widely debated among the general public, game managers and conservationists across Europe. However, there are few systematic reviews of whether predation limits the population sizes of European bird species. Views on the impacts of predation are particularly polarised in the UK, probably because the UK has a globally exceptional culture of intensive, high‐yield gamebird management where predator removal is the norm. In addition, most apex predators have been exterminated or much depleted in numbers, contributing to a widely held perception that the UK has high numbers of mesopredators. This has resulted in many high‐quality studies of mesopredator impacts over several decades. Here we present results from a systematic review of predator trends and abundance, and assess whether predation limits the population sizes of 90 bird species in the UK. Our results confirm that the generalist predators Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Crows (Corvus corone and C. cornix) occur at high densities in the UK compared with other European countries. In addition, some avian and mammalian predators have increased numerically in the UK during recent decades. Despite these high and increasing densities of predators, we found little evidence that predation limits populations of pigeons, woodpeckers and passerines, whereas evidence suggests that ground‐nesting seabirds, waders and gamebirds can be limited by predation. Using life‐history characteristics of prey species, we found that mainly long‐lived species with high adult survival and late onset of breeding were limited by predation. Single‐brooded species were also more likely to be limited by predation than multi‐brooded species. Predators that depredate prey species during all life stages (i.e. from nest to adult stages) limited prey numbers more than predators that depredated only specific life stages (e.g. solely during the nest phase). The Red Fox and non‐native mammals (e.g. the American Mink Neovison vison) were frequently identified as numerically limiting their prey species. Our review has identified predator–prey interactions that are particularly likely to result in population declines of prey species. In the short term, traditional predator‐management techniques (e.g. lethal control or fencing to reduce predation by a small number of predator species) could be used to protect these vulnerable species. However, as these techniques are costly and time‐consuming, we advocate that future research should identify land‐use practices and landscape configurations that would reduce predator numbers and predation rates.     

Mortality of Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nests in Welsh Oakwoods: predation rates and the identification of nest predators using miniature nest cameras

Capsule Predation was the main cause of nest failure, but predation rates have remained unchanged since the 1980s. Eurasian Jays Garrullus glandarius were the most common predator.

Aims To quantify, and compare, nest predation rates for 1982–84 and 2009–11, and to identify predators of Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nests in Welsh oakwoods.

Methods During 2009–11, 167 Wood Warbler nests were monitored and purpose-built miniature nest cameras deployed at 73 of them. Nest predation rates were compared with 67 nests monitored during 1982–84.

Results Of 167 nests monitored from 2009 to 2011, 62 failed due to predation (32/73 camera nests, 30/94 non-camera nests), giving an overall Daily Survival Rate (DSR?±?se) of 0.979?±?0.003. This was not significantly different from the rate during 1982–84 (0.967?±?0.006). In 2009–11, the DSR of nests declined temporally during the season at both the egg and chick stages. For chick stage nests, DSR varied annually and nonlinearly with age of nestlings. There was no evidence for an effect of cameras at either stage. Of 32 camera nests lost to predation, the predator was identified from 28, resulting in 30 predators being identified. There was one case of multiple predators at a single nest. The majority of nest predation was carried out by birds (28/30), predominantly Eurasian Jays (18/28), but also Common Buzzards Buteo buteo (5/28), Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major (3/28) and Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus (2/28). There was one predation by both a Eurasian Badger Meles meles and a Red Fox Vulpes vulpes. There were no records of Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis depredating nests.

Conclusions Nest predation rates were similar in both periods, suggesting that increased rates of nest predation have not been driving the decline of the Wood Warbler population in Wales. Deployment of nest cameras did not affect nest survival rates and were successful in identifying nest predators, the majority of which were avian, especially Eurasian Jays. Knowledge of the identity of nest predators can aid the development of conservation measures.     

Nest survival rates of Red‐crested Cardinals increase with nest age in south‐temperate forests of Argentina

ABSTRACT The main cause of nest mortality for most bird species is predation and nest survival rates often vary in relation to time‐specific variables. Few investigators have examined time‐specific patterns of nest survival in Neotropical birds, and most such studies have focused on tropical and subtropical species. To better understand age‐related patterns of nest survival, we studied nest survival of Red‐crested Cardinals (Paroaria coronata, Thraupidae) in a south‐temperate forest in Argentina. We modeled daily nest survival rates (DSR) using program MARK. We examined the relationship between nest age and nest survival rate, controlling for the effects of physical characteristics of nest sites and progression of the breeding season. We monitored 367 nests for a total of 4018 exposure days. We found that DSR increased with nest age and was higher in small isolated patches than in large continuous patches of forests. The increase of DSR with nest age could be a consequence of more vulnerable nests being predated early in the nesting cycle or a result of parents defending nests more vigorously as nestlings age because of their increasing reproductive value. Open areas of grassland that surrounded the small isolated patches of forests in our study may have been a barrier to predator movements, possibly explaining the lower predation rates. Nest survival rates in our study were lower than those reported for tropical or Nearctic temperate birds, but similar to those reported in other studies of Neotropical temperate birds. Reasons for the low nest survival rates of Neotropical temperate birds remain unclear, and additional studies of predator communities are needed to help elucidate this topic.     

Do seasonal patterns of rat snake (Pantherophis obsoletus) and black racer (Coluber constrictor) activity predict avian nest predation?

Avian nest success often varies seasonally and because predation is the primary cause of nest failure, seasonal variation in predator activity has been hypothesized to explain seasonal variation in nest success. Despite the fact that nest predator communities are often diverse, recent evidence from studies of snakes that are nest predators has lent some support to the link between snake activity and nest predation. However, the strength of the relationship has varied among studies. Explaining this variation is difficult, because none of these studies directly identified nest predators, the link between predator activity and nest survival was inferred. To address this knowledge gap, we examined seasonal variation in daily survival rates of 463 bird nests (of 17 bird species) and used cameras to document predator identity at 137 nests. We simultaneously quantified seasonal activity patterns of two local snake species (N = 30 individuals) using manual (2136 snake locations) and automated (89,165 movements detected) radiotelemetry. Rat snakes (Pantherophis obsoletus), the dominant snake predator at the site (~28% of observed nest predations), were most active in late May and early June, a pattern reported elsewhere for this species. When analyzing all monitored nests, we found no link between nest predation and seasonal activity of rat snakes. When analyzing only nests with known predator identities (filmed nests), however, we found that rat snakes were more likely to prey on nests during periods when they were moving the greatest distances. Similarly, analyses of all monitored nests indicated that nest survival was not linked to racer activity patterns, but racer‐specific predation (N = 17 nests) of filmed nests was higher when racers were moving the greatest distances. Our results suggest that the activity of predators may be associated with higher predation rates by those predators, but that those effects can be difficult to detect when nest predator communities are diverse and predator identities are not known. Additionally, our results suggest that hand‐tracking of snakes provides a reliable indicator of predator activity that may be more indicative of foraging behavior than movement frequency provided by automated telemetry systems.     

Different nest predator guild associated with egg size in the Patagonian temperate forest

Capsule: Studies of nest predation using artificial nests need to consider the effect of egg size on the types of predator that are detected.

Aims: To estimate the nest predation rate in the Patagonian temperate forest and evaluate the influence of egg size on predator guild.

Methods: On different plant species, we placed 108 nests each containing eggs of either Atlantic Canary Serinus canaria or Common Quail Coturnix coturnix, and a model clay egg of equal size to the real egg. Nest predators were identified from the marks left on the clay eggs or by videos recorded using camera traps.

Results: 86% of the nests were predated. Birds, mainly Chimango Caracara Milvago chimango, were the main nest predators. A marsupial, the Monito del Monte Dromiciops gliroides, and rodents also contributed to nest predation. Nest predation rates were similar for both egg sizes but the nest predator guild was different. Birds and rodents preyed on both eggs but the Monito del Monte consumed mainly small eggs.

Conclusion: Egg size did not influence the rate of nest predation but, instead, affected the nest predator guild. Consequently, in order to avoid underestimating the impacts of small predators, egg size should be considered in studies of nest predation.     

Inter‐specific differences in invader and native fish functional responses illustrate neutral effects on prey but superior invader competitive ability

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The influence of landscape features on nest predation rates of grassland‐breeding waders

In Europe, lowland wet grasslands have become increasingly fragmented, and populations of waders in these fragments are subject to unsustainably high levels of nest predation. Patches of taller vegetation in these landscapes can support small mammals, which are the main source of prey for many predators. Providing such patches of habitat could potentially reduce levels of nest predation if predators preferentially target small mammals. However, predator attraction to patches of taller vegetation for foraging, shelter, perching and/or nesting could also result in local increases in predation rates, as a consequence of increased predator densities or spill‐over foraging into the surrounding area. Here we assess the influence of taller vegetation on wader nest predation rates, and the feasibility of managing vegetation structure to alter predator impacts. Between 2005 and 2011, the nest distribution and hatching success of Northern Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, which nest in the open, and Common Redshanks Tringa totanus, which conceal their nests in vegetation, were measured on a 487‐ha area of wet grassland in eastern England that is primarily managed for breeding waders. Predation rates of Lapwing nests increased significantly with distance from patches of taller vegetation, and decreased with increasing area of taller vegetation within 1 km of the nest, whereas neither variable influenced Redshank nest predation probability. These findings suggest that the distribution and activity of nest predators in lowland wet grassland landscapes may be influenced by the presence and distribution of areas of taller vegetation. For Lapwings at least, there may therefore be scope for landscape‐scale management of vegetation structure to influence levels of predation in these habitats.     

Investigator activities reduce nest predation in blackbirds Turdus merula

The effect of investigator perturbance has been traditionally considered detrimental for avian nesting success in terms of enhanced nest predation. This conclusion was however based on a taxonomically biased group of species and, thus, the study of that effect in additional species was essential for reaching a more firm conclusion. Furthermore, although it has been suggested that the effect of nest visiting could also depend on nest predator community, no study has so far tested this hypothesis yet. Trying to detect possible influence of nest‐visiting rates and predator community on nesting success we visited European blackbird Turdus merula nests at two different experimental rates in two populations that considerably differ in the composition of their nest predator communities and natural nest predation rates. Contrary to the traditional ideas, our results not only show that investigator disturbance significantly reduces nest predation, but also that this reduction is maintained in both populations despite the difference in the community of nest predators. We discuss these findings and suggest that predators, especially mammals, might avoid places disturbed by investigators.     

Tracking day and night provides insights into the relative importance of different wader chick predators

Poor reproductive success driven by nest and chick predation severely limits the population recovery of waders breeding on lowland wet grassland. Managing predation requires knowledge of the predators and because these can be grouped into nocturnal or diurnal hunters, detecting the timing of predation can help assess their relative impacts. Wader nest studies investigating the timing of egg predation have identified nocturnal mammals, primarily Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes, as the most important nest predators, but quantifying predator importance for highly mobile wader chicks is more difficult. Manual radiotelemetry can detect whether chicks are alive but cannot detect the time of predation, and predator identity can be determined only in the few cases where remains are recovered. As an alternative we used automatic radio tracking stations (ARTS) to constantly record the signals and predation timing of 179 radiotagged Lapwing Vanellus vanellus chicks, combining this with manual telemetry, inference about predator identity from predated remains and site‐level Fox, mustelid and avian predator activity monitoring. This approach succeeded in detecting the time of predation for 60% of the 155 chicks that were predated. Diurnal chick predation accounted for a larger number of predation events, but nocturnal predation was more intensive in terms of predation likelihood per hour. Mammalian predation during both day and night had a larger impact on chick survival than did avian predation. Raptors were primarily responsible for predation by birds and Foxes for predation by mammals, with Foxes also having a larger influence on daily chick predation rates than other predators. Chick predation increased seasonally, implying that earlier‐hatching breeding attempts are more likely to be successful. Higher Fox, raptor and mustelid activity resulted in higher proportions of chicks being predated by those predators, so quantifying the activity of those three predator groups on a site could be a quicker alternative to studying chicks when investigating which predator species to target with site‐specific predation management.     

Power lines,roads, and avian nest survival: effects on predator identity and predation intensity

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Impact of brood parasitism and predation on nest survival of the fan-tailed gerygone in New Caledonia

Predation and brood parasitism are common reasons for nesting failure in passerine species and the additive impact by invasive species is a major conservation concern, particularly on tropical islands. Recognising the relative contribution of the different components of nesting failure rates is important to understand co-evolutionary interactions within brood parasite–host systems. In the remote archipelago of New Caledonia, the fan-tailed gerygone Gerygone flavolateralis is the exclusive host of the brood-parasitic shining bronze-cuckoo Chalcites lucidus. Additionally, invasive rodents also possibly have an impact on breeding success. To estimate the impact of potential nest predators, we 1) video monitored nests to identify predators, 2) estimated the probability of predation based on nest visibility and predator abundance and 3) tested the possibility that the location of experimental nests and lack of odour cues decrease the predation by rodents. In addition, we estimated nest survival rates using data collected in different habitats over the course of eight breeding seasons. Nesting success of fan-tailed gerygones was relatively low and predation was the main cause of nesting failure. We recorded mainly predation by native birds, including the shining bronze-cuckoo, whereas predation by rats was rare. In open habitats predation by cuckoos was much lower than predation by other avian predators. Neither predator activity around nests nor nest visibility influenced the probability of predation. Experimental nests in more accessible locations and containing an odorous bait were more exposed to rodent predation. Apparently, the fan-tailed gerygone has either never been specifically vulnerable to predation by rats or has developed anti-predator adaptations.     

Predator–prey interactions and metabolic rates are altered in stable and unstable groups in a social fish

Understanding the determinants and consequences of predation effort, success and prey responses is important since these factors affect the fitness of predators and prey. When predators are also invasive species, the impacts on prey can be particularly far-reaching with ultimate ecosystem-level consequences. However, predators are typically viewed as behaviourally fixed within this interaction and it is unclear how variation in predator social dynamics affects predator–prey interactions. Using the invasive eastern mosquitofish Gambusia holbrooki and a native glass shrimp Paratya australiensis in Australia, we investigated how varying levels of social conflict within predator groups influences predator–prey interactions. By experimentally manipulating group stability of G. holbrooki, we show that rates of social conflict were lower in groups with large size differences, but that routine metabolic rates were higher in groups with large size differences. Predation effort and success did not vary depending on group stability, but in stable groups predation effort by aggressive dominants was greater than subordinates. The anti-predator responses of prey to the stability of predator groups were mixed. While more prey utilized shelters when exposed to stable compared to unstable groups of predators, a greater proportion were sedentary when predator groups were unstable. Overall, this study demonstrates predator group stability is modulated by differences in body size and can influence prey responses. Further, it reveals a hidden metabolic cost of living in stable groups despite reduced overt social conflict. For invasive species management, it is therefore important to consider the behavioural and physiological plasticity of the invasive predators, whose complex social interactions and metabolic demands can modulate patterns of predator–prey interactions.     

Increasing temperatures increase the risk of reproductive failure in a near threatened alpine ground-nesting bird,the Cape Rockjumper Chaetops frenatus

A major cause of reproductive failure in birds is nest predation. Predation risk depends on predator type, as predators vary in their ecology and sensory modalities (e.g. visual vs. olfactory). Snakes (generally olfactory predators) are a major nest predator for small birds, with predation strongly associated with higher temperatures. We investigated nest survival in a ground-nesting alpine species, the Cape Rockjumper Chaetops frenatus, endemic to alpine fynbos in southwestern South Africa. We collected 3 years of nest data, testing whether nest survival was related to (1) habitat stage (early post-fire vs. late post-fire habitat, ≤ 3 and > 3 years since fire respectively), (2) nest concealment and (3) temperature. We found that nests had better survival at lower temperatures, with snake predation (our main source of predation) increasing in higher temperatures.     

Interpopulation Comparisons of Antipredator Defense Behavior of the Thorn‐Tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda)

The high impact of predators on breeding success has favored the evolution of diverse behavioral strategies that enhance both individual survivorship and reproductive success. Self‐ and nest‐defense against predators are inter‐related behaviors that vary according to life history traits and the risks involved in defense. In addition, interpopulation differences in the composition of predator guilds, and hence predation pressures, may result in geographic variation in antipredator defense strategies. It is generally accepted that the absence of predators could drive the loss of antipredator behavior. However, it is unclear how species respond if one type of predator (e.g., a specialized nest predator) is absent but others are present. The multipredator hypothesis suggests that the absence of only a few predators is not sufficient to drive a change or loss of antipredator behavior in a species. We examined interpopulation variation in defense behavior in the thorn‐tailed rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda), a suboscine bird inhabiting a wide latitudinal range in southern South America. In populations where nest predators were either present or absent, we examined the responses of rayaditos to an adult predator (an owl) and to a nest predator (a marsupial). Owl‐defense behavior involved more intense and longer responses than marsupial‐defense. This suggests that adult rayaditos may allocate more energy to defend themselves than their young. However, because the presence of adult predators near the nest also prevents parents from feeding the nestlings, owl‐defense may simultaneously represent a form of nest‐defense. No differences in marsupial‐defense were found among the three sampled populations, despite the absence of native mammalian nest predators in one population. The lack of variation in nest‐defense behavior provides some support for the multipredator hypothesis, although the high interpopulation gene flow in this species could also contribute to this behavior's maintenance.     

Parent birds assess nest predation risk: influence of cavity condition and avian nest predator activity

Skutch hypothesized that nest predators visually assess parental activities to locate a prey nest, whereas parents modify fitness‐related traits to reduce the probability of nest predation. We examined how cavity condition and parental activity interact with avian nest predators to shape the nest success of two coexisting parid species, marsh tits Poecile palustris and oriental tits Parus minor, breeding in nest‐boxes during the incubation period. Nest‐boxes were manipulated to create a prolonged risk of nest predation (entrance diameter 2.6 cm control vs 5.5 cm treatment) soon after clutch completion. To measure changes in parental behavior, we also simultaneously simulated a pulsed risk of nest predation, using sound playbacks of a coexisting control bird and an avian nest predator. We found that the parent tits merely responded the pulsed risk, presumably due to an environment with high avian nest predator encounters, compared to the prolonged risk. Instead, both species spent more time on vigilance at the nest, only under prolonged risk conditions. The activity of corvids near the nest‐box was higher in the marsh tit than that in oriental tits. This activity was also higher in the treatment nest box than that in the control nest‐box. Nest predation during the incubation period was higher in marsh tits than in oriental tits, presumably due to higher and more plastic vigilance in oriental tits, compared to marsh tits. Our results highlight that the differences in cavity condition and parental activities at the nests of two coexisting non‐excavators may contribute to differential nest predation by attracting avian nest predators.     

Effects of Mesopredators on Nest Survival of Shrub-Nesting Songbirds

ABSTRACT Although nest predation is often the single largest source of mortality in avian populations, manipulative studies to determine predator impacts on nest survival are rare, particularly studies that examine impacts of mid-size mammalian predators (hereafter, mesopredators) on nest survival of shrub-nesting birds. We quantified nest survival and identified nest predators of shrub-nesting songbirds within 4 large (approx. 40-ha) exclosures and 4 control sites within a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem. During 2003–2006, we located and monitored 535 shrub nests (222 with videography) for 4,804 nest-days to quantify daily nest survival and document predation events. We found no support for a treatment effect, suggesting mesopredators had little impact on daily nest survival (0.9303 in controls and 0.9260 in exclosures) of shrub-nesting songbirds. For the 5 most commonly monitored species, daily nest survival within species was constant. Our analysis suggested that shrub nests were most vulnerable during the nestling stage and presence of cameras on nests increased survival with the increase in survival being more pronounced during the incubation stage. We filmed 107 nest predation events, identifying predators at 88 nests. Of these 88 nests, snakes caused 33%, red imported fire ants (hereafter fire ants, Solenopsis invicta) 28%, raptors 17%, corvids 8%, mesopredators 6%, and small mammals 8% of nest predations. Cause-specific nest predation in controls and exclosures did not differ from expectation, providing evidence that compensatory predation did not occur. Nest predators differed from expectation with regard to nest stage; fire ants and raptors only depredated nests during the nestling stage. Presence of cameras had no effect on nest abandonment. Fire ants were the most prevalent nest predator, and nest predation by fire ants was only observed on nestlings, potentially reducing likelihood of renesting. Magnitude and timing of fire ant predation suggests that fire ants may be the most influential nest predator of shrub-nesting birds within the longleaf pine ecosystem. Our data suggest that controlling mesopredators will have no effect on nest success of shrub-nesting birds within longleaf pine forests.     

Predators of Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata nests in southern England as determined by digital nest-cameras

Capsule Avian predators are principally responsible.

Aims To document the fate of Spotted Flycatcher nests and to identify the species responsible for nest predation.

Methods During 2005–06, purpose-built, remote, digital nest-cameras were deployed at 65 out of 141 Spotted Flycatcher nests monitored in two study areas, one in south Devon and the second on the border of Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire.

Results Of the 141 nests monitored, 90 were successful (non-camera nests, 49 out of 76 successful, camera nests, 41 out of 65). Fate was determined for 63 of the 65 nests monitored by camera, with 20 predation events documented, all of which occurred during daylight hours. Avian predators carried out 17 of the 20 predations, with the principal nest predator identified as Eurasian Jay Garrulus glandarius. The only mammal recorded predating nests was the Domestic Cat Felis catus, the study therefore providing no evidence that Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis are an important predator of Spotted Flycatcher nests. There was no evidence of differences in nest survival rates at nests with and without cameras. Nest remains following predation events gave little clue as to the identity of the predator species responsible.

Conclusions Nest-cameras can be useful tools in the identification of nest predators, and may be deployed with no subsequent effect on nest survival. The majority of predation of Spotted Flycatcher nests in this study was by avian predators, principally the Jay. There was little evidence of predation by mammalian predators. Identification of specific nest predators enhances studies of breeding productivity and predation risk.     

Incidental nest predation in freshwater turtles: inter- and intraspecific differences in vulnerability are explained by relative crypsis

There has long been interest in the influence of predators on prey populations, although most predator–prey studies have focused on prey species that are targets of directed predator searching. Conversely, few have addressed depredation that occurs after incidental encounters with predators. We tested two predictions stemming from the hypothesis that nest predation on two sympatric freshwater turtle species whose nests are differentially prone to opportunistic detection—painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) and snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina)—is incidental: (1) predation rates should be density independent, and (2) individual predators should not alter their foraging behavior after encountering nests. After monitoring nest survival and predator behavior following nest depredation over 2 years, we confirmed that predation by raccoons (Procyon lotor), the primary nest predators in our study area, matched both predictions. Furthermore, cryptic C. picta nests were victimized with lower frequency than more detectable C. serpentina nests, and nests of both species were more vulnerable in human-modified areas where opportunistic nest discovery is facilitated. Despite apparently being incidental, predation on nests of both species was intensive (57% for painted turtles, 84% for snapping turtles), and most depredations occurred within 1 day of nest establishment. By implication, predation need not be directed to affect prey demography, and factors influencing prey crypsis are drivers of the impact of incidental predation on prey. Our results also imply that efforts to conserve imperiled turtle populations in human-modified landscapes should include restoration of undisturbed conditions that are less likely to expose nests to incidental predators.     

Patterns of predator behaviour and Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nest survival in a primaeval forest

Understanding the foraging behaviour of predators is key to interpreting the role of anti‐predator adaptations of birds in reducing nest losses. Conducting research in primaeval habitats, with a low level of direct human interference, is particularly valuable in the understanding of predator–prey interactions. Using nest cameras, we investigated the identity and behaviour of potential and actual predators appearing at Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nests, and the importance of different predator groups for nest survival, in the primaeval part of Bia?owie?a Forest (Poland). Mammals formed the main predator group (30 of 32 nest depredations), particularly medium‐sized carnivores (24 of 32), which attacked nests more frequently than merely passing by. This contrasted with other species, especially small rodents, which were commonly recorded near nests but rarely attacked them. Most nest attacks (22 of 32) took place at night and nest survival did not depend on nest visibility, indicating a reduced utility of nest concealment in defence against predators using mainly sound or olfaction when hunting. Daily nest survival declined strongly with nest progression (from egg‐laying to fledging of chicks), probably due to increased predator detection of nests containing older and louder chicks, rather than to increasing parental activity at nests during the day. The set of actual nest predators differed from some previous studies in human‐transformed habitats, showing that Wood Warblers may face different threats in modified vs. near‐pristine environments.