Orthotopic Hind Limb Transplantation in the Mouse

In vivo animal model systems, and in particular mouse models, have evolved into powerful and versatile scientific tools indispensable to basic and translational research in the field of transplantation medicine. A vast array of reagents is available exclusively in this setting, including mono- and polyclonal antibodies for both diagnostic and interventional applications. In addition, a vast number of genotyped, inbred, transgenic, and knock out strains allow detailed investigation of the individual contributions of humoral and cellular components to the complex interplay of an immune response and make the mouse the gold standard for immunological research. Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation (VCA) delineates a novel field of transplantation using allografts to replace "like with like" in patients suffering traumatic or congenital tissue loss. This surgical methodological protocol shows the use of a non-suture cuff technique for super-microvascular anastomosis in an orthotopic mouse hind limb transplantation model. The model specifically allows for comparison between established paradigms in solid organ transplantation with a novel form of transplants consisting of various different tissue components. Uniquely, this model allows for the transplantation of a viable vascularized bone marrow compartment and niche that have the potential to exert a beneficial effect on the balance of immune acceptance and rejection. This technique provides a tool to investigate alloantigen recognition and allograft rejection and acceptance, as well as enables the pursuit of functional nerve regeneration studies to further advance this novel field of transplantation.     

同种异体宫内移植小鼠嵌合模型的建立

干细胞宫内移植是一种很有前途的产前治疗方式。为深入研究干细胞移植后的细胞行为,采用宫内移植的方法建立同种异体的嵌合小鼠模型。将雄鼠骨髓单核细胞宫内注射到胎鼠腹腔,在受体鼠出生后检测雌性受体鼠外周血细胞。应用PCR检测外周血是否存在雄性鼠的DNA,并采用定量PCR技术确定其嵌合量;同时用荧光原位杂交（FISH）技术直观观察外周血中雄性来源的细胞。结果表明：共获得4只阳性外周血嵌合小鼠,其中3只稳定嵌合达到6个月以上。应用宫内移植成功建立了外周血中存在异源细胞的小鼠嵌合模型。     

Development of Obliterative Bronchiolitis in a Murine Model of Orthotopic Lung Transplantation

Orthotopic lung transplantation in rats was first reported by Asimacopoulos and colleagues in 1971 ¹. Currently, this method is well accepted and standardized not only for the study of allo-rejection but also between syngeneic strains for examining mechanisms of ischemia-reperfusion injury after lung transplantation. Although the application of the rat and other large animal model ² contributed significantly to the elucidation of these studies, the scope of those investigations is limited by the scarcity of knockout and transgenic rats. Due to no effective therapies for obliterative bronchiolitis, the leading cause of death in lung transplant patients, there has been an intensive search for pre-clinical models that replicate obliterative bronchiolitis. The tracheal allograft model is the most widely used and may reproduce some of the histopathologic features of obliterative bronchiolitis ³. However, the lack of an intact vasculature with no connection to the recipient''s conducting airways, and incomplete pathologic features of obliterative bronchiolitis limit the utility of this model ⁴. Unlike transplantation of other solid organs, vascularized mouse lung transplants have only recently been reported by Okazaki and colleagues for the first time in 2007 ⁵. Applying the basic principles of the rat lung transplant, our lab initiated the obliterative bronchiolitis model using minor histoincompatible antigen murine orthotopic single-left lung transplants which allows the further study of obliterative bronchiolitis immunopathogenesis⁶.     

单人建立大鼠原位肝移植模型的手术体会

目的:探讨单人建立稳定大鼠原位肝移植模型手术中的难点及对策。方法:单人及双人裸视下采用改良二袖套法制备大鼠原位肝移植模型各50例。结果:单人及双人组供体手术时间、无肝期、受体手术手术时间分别为:(39.16±2.89)min和(38.36±3.04)min、(19.92±1.36)min和(19.70±1.40)min、(61.98±3.46)min和(58.65±3.94)min;单人及双人组手术成功率、1周存活率、一月存活率分别为:94.0%(47/50)和92.0%(46/50)、86.0%(43/50)和88.0%(44/50)、86%(43/50)和84%(42/50)。结论:通过改进手术方法,简化操作,单人即可建立稳定的大鼠原位肝移植模型。     

Monitoring Prostate Tumor Growth in an Orthotopic Mouse Model Using Three-Dimensional Ultrasound Imaging Technique

Prostate cancer (CaP) is the most commonly diagnosed and the second leading cause of death from cancer in males in USA. Prostate orthotopic mouse model has been widely used to study human CaP in preclinical settings. Measurement of changes in tumor size obtained from noninvasive diagnostic images is a standard method for monitoring responses to anticancer modalities. This article reports for the first time the usage of a three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound system equipped with photoacoustic (PA) imaging in monitoring longitudinal prostate tumor growth in a PC-3 orthotopic NODSCID mouse model (n = 8). Two-dimensional and 3D modes of ultrasound show great ability in accurately depicting the size and shape of prostate tumors. PA function on two-dimensional and 3D images showed average oxygen saturation and average hemoglobin concentration of the tumor. Results showed a good fit in representative exponential tumor growth curves (n = 3; r² = 0.948, 0.955, and 0.953, respectively) and a good correlation of tumor volume measurements performed in vivo with autopsy (n = 8, r = 0.95, P < .001). The application of 3D ultrasound imaging proved to be a useful imaging modality in monitoring tumor growth in an orthotopic mouse model, with advantages such as high contrast, uncomplicated protocols, economical equipment, and nonharmfulness to animals. PA mode also enabled display of blood oxygenation surrounding the tumor and tumor vasculature and angiogenesis, making 3D ultrasound imaging an ideal tool for preclinical cancer research.     

Multimodal Imaging of Orthotopic Mouse Model of Endometrial Carcinoma

Background

Orthotopic endometrial cancer models provide a unique tool for studies of tumour growth and metastatic spread. Novel preclinical imaging methods also have the potential to quantify functional tumour characteristics in vivo, with potential relevance for monitoring response to therapy.

Methods

After orthotopic injection with luc-expressing endometrial cancer cells, eleven mice developed disease detected by weekly bioluminescence imaging (BLI). In parallel the same mice underwent positron emission tomography–computed tomography (PET-CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) employing ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglocose (¹⁸F-FDG) or ¹⁸F- fluorothymidine (¹⁸F-FLT) and contrast reagent, respectively. The mice were sacrificed when moribund, and post-mortem examination included macroscopic and microscopic examination for validation of growth of primary uterine tumours and metastases. PET-CT was also performed on a patient derived model (PDX) generated from a patient with grade 3 endometrioid endometrial cancer.

Results

Increased BLI signal during tumour growth was accompanied by increasing metabolic tumour volume (MTV) and increasing MTV x mean standard uptake value of the tumour (SUV_mean) in ¹⁸F-FDG and ¹⁸F-FLT PET-CT, and MRI conspicuously depicted the uterine tumour. At necropsy 82% (9/11) of the mice developed metastases detected by the applied imaging methods. ¹⁸F-FDG PET proved to be a good imaging method for detection of patient derived tumour tissue.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that all imaging modalities enable monitoring of tumour growth and metastatic spread in an orthotopic mouse model of endometrial carcinoma. Both PET tracers, ¹⁸F-FDG and ¹⁸F-FLT, appear to be equally feasible for detecting tumour development and represent, together with MRI, promising imaging tools for monitoring of patient-derived xenograft (PDX) cancer models.     

Prednisolone as Preservation Additive Prevents from Ischemia Reperfusion Injury in a Rat Model of Orthotopic Lung Transplantation

The lung is, more than other solid organs, susceptible for ischemia reperfusion injury after orthotopic transplantation. Corticosteroids are known to potently suppress pro-inflammatory processes when given in the post-operative setting or during rejection episodes. Whereas their use has been approved for these clinical indications, there is no study investigating its potential as a preservation additive in preventing vascular damage already in the phase of ischemia. To investigate these effects we performed orthotopic lung transplantations (LTX) in the rat. Prednisolone was either added to the perfusion solution for lung preservation or omitted and rats were followed for 48 hours after LTX. Prednisolone preconditioning significantly increased survival and diminished reperfusion edema. Hypoxia induced vasoactive cytokines such as VEGF were reduced. Markers of leukocyte invasiveness like matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-2, or common pro-inflammatory molecules like the CXCR4 receptor or the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL)-2 were downregulated by prednisolone. Neutrophil recruitment to the grafts was only increased in Perfadex treated lungs. Together with this, prednisolone treated animals displayed significantly reduced lung protein levels of neutrophil chemoattractants like CINC-1, CINC-2α/β and LIX and upregulated tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1. Interestingly, lung macrophage invasion was increased in both, Perfadex and prednisolone treated grafts, as measured by MMP-12 or RM4. Markers of anti-inflammatory macrophage transdifferentiation like MRC-1, IL-13, IL-4 and CD163, significantly correlated with prednisolone treatment. These observations lead to the conclusion that prednisolone as an additive to the perfusion solution protects from hypoxia triggered danger signals already in the phase of ischemia and thus reduces graft edema in the phase of reperfusion. Additionally, prednisolone preconditioning might also lead to macrophage polarization as a beneficial long-term effect.     

单人直视下改良建立大鼠原位肝移植模型的体会

目的:建立稳定大鼠原位肝移植模型,缩短术中无肝期时间,提高手术成功率及受体存活率。方法:在Kamada"二袖套法"的基础上改进,单人直视下建立大鼠原位肝移植模型,行60例SD大鼠原位肝移植手术。本研究简化供受体麻醉方式,供肝采用经门静脉(必要时配合腹主动脉补救方式)进行冷灌注,缩短修肝时间,提前预置牵引线,固定进针位置,改进植入肝脏肝上下腔静脉吻合、肝下下腔静脉及门静脉套管。观察并记录各组大鼠供体手术、修肝套管、无肝期、受体手术及肝移植手术总时间。术后检测1,7,30天受体大鼠肝功能(血清丙氨酸转氨酶(ALT),天冬氨酸转氨酶(AST)及总胆红素(TB))并分析生存情况。结果:无肝期结束后,供体肝脏灌注良好,受体麻醉移除后较快苏醒。供体手术、修肝套管、无肝期、受体手术及肝移植手术总时间分别为(32.5±1.58)、(7.3±1.43)、(15.6±2.62)、(53.2±3.74)、(108.5±2.34)min。大鼠术后24 h(手术成功率)为95%,1周生存率分别为90%,1月生存率分别为86.7%。大鼠术后短时间内肝功能水平增高,24 h时ALT(228.5±54.5 IU/L),AST(439.3±86.3 IU/L),TB(6.2±0.7μM),1周后逐渐恢复正常。结论:改良后的方法可以简易麻醉流程,缩短无肝期,提高手术成功率及受体的生存率。     

舒必利与垂体移植诱发小鼠子宫腺肌病的比较

目的比较舒必利诱导和垂体移植诱导两种造模方法的效果,评价适用于子宫腺肌病研究的小鼠模型。方法 45只7周龄未曾受孕的雌性BALB/c小鼠,随机分为对照组、舒必利组和垂体移植组,每组15只。舒必利组每日皮下注射舒必利,每20 g体重注射800μg,垂体移植组则将同种同龄雄鼠的垂体放入雌鼠右侧子宫内,对照组不予任何处理。5个月后以子宫湿重、终末体重、子宫湿重/终末体重的比值、卵巢湿重、子宫HE染色评分及模型成功率等指标评价造模效果。结果 5个月后舒必利组和垂体移植组小鼠的子宫湿重、子宫湿重/终末体重的比值、子宫HE染色评分及成功率均显著高于对照组,但两模型组各项指标比较差别无统计学意义,三组小鼠终末体重和卵巢湿重比较差别均无统计学意义。结论对照组无一例形成子宫腺肌病,舒必利诱导和垂体移植诱导两种造模方法均可引起小鼠子宫腺肌病,造模的各项评价指标均无显著差异,都可用于子宫腺肌病的研究。     

A Mouse Model of in Utero Transplantation

The transplantation of stem cells and viruses in utero has tremendous potential for treating congenital disorders in the human fetus. For example, in utero transplantation (IUT) of hematopoietic stem cells has been used to successfully treat patients with severe combined immunodeficiency.^1,2 In several other conditions, however, IUT has been attempted without success.³ Given these mixed results, the availability of an efficient non-human model to study the biological sequelae of stem cell transplantation and gene therapy is critical to advance this field. We and others have used the mouse model of IUT to study factors affecting successful engraftment of in utero transplanted hematopoietic stem cells in both wild-type mice^4-7 and those with genetic diseases.^8,9 The fetal environment also offers considerable advantages for the success of in utero gene therapy. For example, the delivery of adenoviral¹⁰, adeno-associated viral¹⁰, retroviral¹¹, and lentiviral vectors^12,13 into the fetus has resulted in the transduction of multiple organs distant from the site of injection with long-term gene expression. in utero gene therapy may therefore be considered as a possible treatment strategy for single gene disorders such as muscular dystrophy or cystic fibrosis. Another potential advantage of IUT is the ability to induce immune tolerance to a specific antigen. As seen in mice with hemophilia, the introduction of Factor IX early in development results in tolerance to this protein.¹⁴In addition to its use in investigating potential human therapies, the mouse model of IUT can be a powerful tool to study basic questions in developmental and stem cell biology. For example, one can deliver various small molecules to induce or inhibit specific gene expression at defined gestational stages and manipulate developmental pathways. The impact of these alterations can be assessed at various timepoints after the initial transplantation. Furthermore, one can transplant pluripotent or lineage specific progenitor cells into the fetal environment to study stem cell differentiation in a non-irradiated and unperturbed host environment.The mouse model of IUT has already provided numerous insights within the fields of immunology, and developmental and stem cell biology. In this video-based protocol, we describe a step-by-step approach to performing IUT in mouse fetuses and outline the critical steps and potential pitfalls of this technique.Download video file.^{(55M, mov)}     

荧光标记技术在肿瘤模型研究中的应用

目的利用绿色荧光小鼠和红色荧光蛋白标记肿瘤细胞,建立荧光标记的小鼠肿瘤模型,并建立活体荧光成像和荧光显微镜成像在整体和细胞水平直接观察肿瘤的技术。方法将小鼠B16黑色素瘤细胞接种到绿色荧光蛋白转基因小鼠皮下,建立GFP小鼠肿瘤模型。以红色荧光蛋白作为标记基因导入小鼠黑色素瘤细胞B16细胞,建立稳定表达红色荧光蛋白的细胞株。将表达红色荧光蛋白B16细胞接种到绿色荧光转基因小鼠皮下,建立双荧光小鼠肿瘤模型。用荧光显微镜和活体荧光成像系统检测小鼠肿瘤的发生发展。结果分别建立了GFP小鼠肿瘤模型和双色荧光小鼠肿瘤模型。利用活体荧光影像仪可以观察双色荧光小鼠模型中受体绿色荧光组织和红色荧光移植肿瘤相互融合。利用荧光显微镜,可以观察到肿瘤内绿色荧光标记的来源于受体小鼠的血管和免疫细胞。经香菇多糖刺激的GFP小鼠肿瘤模型的移植瘤组织中,来源于受体小鼠绿色荧光标记的免疫细胞明显多于经生理盐水刺激的对照小鼠。结论利用绿色荧光小鼠和红色荧光RFP标记肿瘤细胞建立荧光标记的小鼠肿瘤模型,采用活体荧光成像仪和荧光显微镜可在整体和细胞水平直接观察肿瘤的生长以及肿瘤与宿主的相互作用。     

人肝癌原位移植转移模型特性实验研究

目的　建立人肝癌细胞系HCC-9724(简称H)淋巴结转移模型,研究肿瘤转移机理。方法　采用裸鼠肝脏原位移植法,接种肿瘤细胞,取其淋巴结转移灶反复肝内接种,连续传三代后,观察其转移特性,采用SABC法测定淋巴结中nm23和Ⅳ型胶原酶表达。结果　裸鼠原位接种50d,肝内长出约1.7cm×6.0cm大小的肿瘤,呈分叶状,质地较软,周围血供丰富,瘤组织与邻近脏器粘连,有明显的浸润和转移,经裸鼠三次筛选后肿瘤潜伏期短(15d),瘤体大,形成广泛的肠系膜淋巴结转移,淋巴结中Ⅳ型胶原酶表达呈强阳性;而nm23呈弱阳性。结论　采用裸鼠肝原位移植法,反复筛选,获得了人肝癌淋巴结高转移模型。     

Mouse Pneumonectomy Model of Compensatory Lung Growth

In humans, disrupted repair and remodeling of injured lung contributes to a host of acute and chronic lung disorders which may ultimately lead to disability or death. Injury-based animal models of lung repair and regeneration are limited by injury-specific responses making it difficult to differentiate changes related to the injury response and injury resolution from changes related to lung repair and lung regeneration. However, use of animal models to identify these repair and regeneration signaling pathways is critical to the development of new therapies aimed at improving pulmonary function following lung injury. The mouse pneumonectomy model utilizes compensatory lung growth to isolate those repair and regeneration signals in order to more clearly define mechanisms of alveolar re-septation. Here, we describe our technique for performing mouse pneumonectomy and sham pneumonectomy. This technique may be utilized in conjunction with lineage tracing or other transgenic mouse models to define molecular and cellular mechanism of lung repair and regeneration.     

Technique of Porcine Liver Procurement and Orthotopic Transplantation using an Active Porto-Caval Shunt

The success of liver transplantation has resulted in a dramatic organ shortage. Each year, a considerable number of patients on the liver transplantation waiting list die without receiving an organ transplant or are delisted due to disease progression. Even after a successful transplantation, rejection and side effects of immunosuppression remain major concerns for graft survival and patient morbidity. Experimental animal research has been essential to the success of liver transplantation and still plays a pivotal role in the development of clinical transplantation practice. In particular, the porcine orthotopic liver transplantation model (OLTx) is optimal for clinically oriented research for its close resemblance to human size, anatomy, and physiology. Decompression of intestinal congestion during the anhepatic phase of porcine OLTx is important to guarantee reliable animal survival. The use of an active porto-caval-jugular shunt achieves excellent intestinal decompression. The system can be used for short-term as well as long-term survival experiments. The following protocol contains all technical information for a stable and reproducible liver transplantation model in pigs including post-operative animal care.     

Transplantation of Pulmonary Valve Using a Mouse Model of Heterotopic Heart Transplantation

Tissue engineered heart valves, especially decellularized valves, are starting to gain momentum in clinical use of reconstructive surgery with mixed results. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the neotissue development, valve thickening, and stenosis development are not researched extensively. To answer the above questions, we developed a murine heterotopic heart valve transplantation model. A heart valve was harvested from a valve donor mouse and transplanted to a heart donor mouse. The heart with a new valve was transplanted heterotopically to a recipient mouse. The transplanted heart showed its own heartbeat, independent of the recipient’s heartbeat. The blood flow was quantified using a high frequency ultrasound system with a pulsed wave Doppler. The flow through the implanted pulmonary valve showed forward flow with minimal regurgitation and the peak flow was close to 100 mm/sec. This murine model of heart valve transplantation is highly versatile, so it can be modified and adapted to provide different hemodynamic environments and/or can be used with various transgenic mice to study neotissue development in a tissue engineered heart valve.     

Intrahepatic Tissue Implantation Represents a Favorable Approach for Establishing Orthotopic Transplantation Hepatocellular Carcinoma Mouse Models

Mouse models are commonly used for studying hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) biology and exploring new therapeutic interventions. Currently three main modalities of HCC mouse models have been extensively employed in pre-clinical studies including chemically induced, transgenic and transplantation models. Among them, transplantation models are preferred for evaluating in vivo drug efficacy in pre-clinical settings given the short latency, uniformity in size and close resemblance to tumors in patients. However methods used for establishing orthotopic HCC transplantation mouse models are diverse and fragmentized without a comprehensive comparison. Here, we systemically evaluate four different approaches commonly used to establish HCC mice in preclinical studies, including intravenous, intrasplenic, intrahepatic inoculation of tumor cells and intrahepatic tissue implantation. Four parameters—the latency period, take rates, pathological features and metastatic rates—were evaluated side-by-side. 100% take rates were achieved in liver with intrahepatic, intrasplenic inoculation of tumor cells and intrahepatic tissue implantation. In contrast, no tumor in liver was observed with intravenous injection of tumor cells. Intrahepatic tissue implantation resulted in the shortest latency with 0.5cm (longitudinal diameter) tumors found in liver two weeks after implantation, compared to 0.1cm for intrahepatic inoculation of tumor cells. Approximately 0.1cm tumors were only visible at 4 weeks after intrasplenic inoculation. Uniform, focal and solitary tumors were formed with intrahepatic tissue implantation whereas multinodular, dispersed and non-uniform tumors produced with intrahepatic and intrasplenic inoculation of tumor cells. Notably, metastasis became visible in liver, peritoneum and mesenterium at 3 weeks post-implantation, and lung metastasis was visible after 7 weeks. T cell infiltration was evident in tumors, resembling the situation in HCC patients. Our study demonstrated that orthotopic HCC mouse models established via intrahepatic tissue implantation authentically reflect clinical manifestations in HCC patients pathologically and immunologically, suggesting intrahepatic tissue implantation is a preferable approach for establishing orthotopic HCC mouse models.     

Orthotopic Kidney Transplantation in Mice: Technique Using Cuff for Renal Vein Anastomosis

Mouse renal transplantation is a technically challenging procedure. Although the first kidney transplants in mice were performed over 34 years ago and refined some years later, the classical techniques of mouse renal transplantation required clamping both vena cava and aorta simultaneously and carry out suture anastomoses of the renal artery and vein in a heterotopic position. In our laboratory, we have successfully developed mouse orthotopic kidney transplantation for the first time, using a rapid “cuffed” renal vein technique for vessel anastomosis, wherein the donor’s renal vein was inserted through an intravenous catheter, folded back and tied. During grafting, the cuffed renal vein was directly inserted into the recipient’s renal vein without the need for the clamping vena cava and suturing of renal vein. This technique allowed for the exact transplantation of the kidney into the original position, compared to the classical technique, and has significantly shortened the clamping time due to a quicker and precise anastomosis of renal vein as described. This also allowed for a quicker recovery of the lower extremity activity, reduction in myoglobinuria with resultant kidney graft survival of 88.9%. Thus we believe that the cuffed renal vein technique simplifies microvascular anastomoses and affords important additional benefits.     

荧光素酶标记人胃癌细胞裸鼠原位移植模型的建立

目的建立荧光素酶标记人胃癌原位异种移植模型。方法将萤火虫荧光素酶作为标记基因导入人胃癌MGC803细胞,建立稳定表达荧光素酶的细胞,将其接种裸鼠胃壁浆膜下,建立胃癌裸鼠原位肿瘤模型。用活体荧光成像系统检测肿瘤的发生发展,并进行小动物超声影像和病理学分析。结果裸鼠原位成瘤率为100%,活体荧光成像观察发现在接种第7天,就可以观察到肿瘤发光。21 d后肿瘤进入对数生长期,28 d后肿瘤出现明显坏死,平均荧光光子数呈现下降趋势。超声成像发现小鼠胃部有直径为8.39 mm,面积为28.92 mm2瘤块。结论荧光素酶标记可以实时监测原位异种移植人胃癌生长状况。     

Characterization of Lung Cancer by Amide Proton Transfer (APT) Imaging: An In-Vivo Study in an Orthotopic Mouse Model

Amide proton transfer (APT) imaging is one of the chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) imaging methods which images the exchange between protons of free tissue water and the amide groups (−NH) of endogenous mobile proteins and peptides. Previous work suggested the ability of APT imaging for characterization of the tumoral grade in the brain tumor. In this study, we tested the feasibility of in-vivo APT imaging of lung tumor and investigated whether the method could differentiate the tumoral types on orthotopic tumor xenografts from two malignant lung cancer cell lines. The results revealed that APT imaging is feasible to quantify lung tumors in the moving lung. The measured APT effect was higher in the tumor which exhibited more active proliferation than the other. The present study demonstrates that APT imaging has the potential to provide a characterization test to differentiate types or grade of lung cancer noninvasively, which may eventually reduce the need invasive needle biopsy or resection for lung cancer.