Gonadossomatic relation and reproductive strategy of Brycon opalinus (Cuvier, 1819) in the Serra do Mar State Park--Núcleo Santa Virgínia, Atlantic Forest, Brazil.

The objective of this study was to analyze the gonadossomatic relation of males and females of Brycon opalinus (the Pirapitinga do Sul) in the Serra do Mar State Park--Núcleo Santa Virgínia. The study area included three rivers: Paraibuna, Ipiranga, and Grande. From the gonadossomatic relation, it was possible to determine the reproductive season and strategy of this species. The gonadossomatic relation was high throughout the year for both males and females. Sperm competition and dilution of the ejaculate in the spawning locations favored substantial development of the testicles. The sex ratio of Brycon opalinus was always in favor of females. The existence of sexual dimorphism in this species was confirmed from the larger size of the females.     

Reproduction of Pirapitinga do Sul (Brycon opalinus Cuvier, 1819) in the Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar-Núcleo Santa Virgínia, S?o Paulo, Brazil.

The objective of the study was to characterize seasonally and locally the reproduction of Pirapitinga do Sul (Brycon opalinus). The study area included three rivers (Paraibuna, Ipiranga, and Grande) in the Santa Virgínia Unit of the Serra do Mar State Park, State of S?o Paulo, Brazil. Breeding occurred in spring, summer, and autumn. The L(50) and the L(100) of this species were 16 to 18 cm and 26 to 28 cm, respectively. Spawning was total, with synchronous development in two groups. The size of mature oocytes was 1,346.4 microm, reaching a maximum of 2,570.4 microm, with a mean fecundity of 9,190.5 oocytes. This species has external fertilization, is non-migratory, and lacks parental care of the young. Preservation of the Pirapitinga do Sul depends, in great part, on maintaining water quality, preservation of the riverine forests, and access to breeding areas.     

Feeding of Oligosarcus hepsetus (Cuvier, 1829) (Characiformes) in the Serra do Mar State Park--Santa Virgínia Unit, S?o Paulo, Brazil.

We describe the diet of Oligosarcus hepsetus, in the Santa Virgínia Unit of the Serra do Mar State Park. The Paraibuna and Grande rivers in the basin of the Paraíba do Sul River were sampled monthly from January to December 2004. The Alimentary Preference Degree and the frequency of occurrence indices were used to analyze the food items. The diets of Oligosarcus hepsetus in the two localities sampled were very similar, and reinforced the importance of the streamside forests in establishing and maintaining biotic and abiotic conditions in these environments. The species had a carnivorous diet that differed with ontogeny: smaller individuals were principally insectivorous and larger ones ichthyophagous.     

The diet of Brycinus nurse (Pisces: Characidae) from Asa reservoir,Ilorin, Nigeria

From November 1991 to October 1993, 980 specimens of the characid Brycinus nurse were collected from Asa reservoir to examine its diet. The diet was analyzed using the frequency of occurrence, numerical and gravimetric methods. Two hundred and sixty nine (27.45%) of the stomachs examined were empty. The fish was an omnivore feeding extensively on a wide array of plant and animal food items. These consisted of 9 families, 10 genera and 10 species. The most extensively consumed plant food item was aquatic plant parts which occurred in 63.88% of the stomachs, and accounted for 6.06% by number and 12.10% by weight while the ephemeropteran, Povilla adusta was the most dominant animal food item, occurring in 50.92% of the stomachs, and accounting for 11.98% by number and 11.86% by weight. Conversely, the least consumed plant food item was Volvox occurring in 4.49% of the stomachs and accounting for 0.18% by number and 0.35% by weight, while the fish Barbus sp. was the least consumed animal food item occurring in 0.51% of the stomachs, accounting for 0.03% by number and 1.62% by weight. New food items not previously recorded such as a watermite. Aspatharia sinuata and Barbus callipterus were found in the stomach contents. The nonspecific feeding regime of the fish and its ability to utilize different food items effectively was what accounted for the prominence and wide distribution of the fish in the lake.     

On the food of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), in the upper zone of the Tagus estuary, Portugal

The estuarine food habits of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), in the upper zone of the Tagus estuary have been studied through the analysis of 210 specimens collected during 1988. Eels, measuring from 136 to 627 mm in total length, fed on prey organisms ranging from 2.0 to 76.0 mm in length. Amphipods and the shore crab, Carcinus maenas (L.), were the most important food items found. In more saline muddy bottom areas polychaetes, bivalves and shrimp increased their importance as prey, replacing the amphipods as preferential food. Fish were always a secondary, although significant, prey item. The occurrence of seasonal variations in eels' diet could be attributed to fluctuations in prey densities. There was evidence of a close relationship between the quantity of prey organisms in the benthos and the composition of eels' stomach contents, but a certain degree of food selection based on size, concealment capacity and motility of prey, was found.     

年龄和性别因素对奇台沙蜥食性的影响

采用胃容物分析法研究年龄和性别因素对奇台沙蜥(Phrynocephalus grumgrzimailoi)食性的影响.共解剖220号浸制标本,取出整胃分离胃容物,鉴别胃容物中的食物种类,统计各种食物组分的数量频率、重量比例、出现频率和相对重要性指数(index of relative importance,IRI).结...     

Food habits of Lutjanus peru (Pisces:Lutjanidae) in the coasts of Guerrero, Mexico

In this paper we describe the feeding habits of the Red snapper (Lutjanus peru) in the southern coast of Guerrero state, Mexico. This data could be relevant to local fisheries management. In total 385 full stomachs (206 from females and 179 from males) were collected monthly in 1993 and 1994, from commercial catches. Stomach contents were identified to species level when possible. Food items were grouped into taxonomically coherent groups, and their numbers, weight and frequency of occurrence obtained. The index of relative importance (IRI) was calculated for the total sample, by month, sex and size class. In 1993, a total of 42 different food items were obtained, and 43 in 1994. Food items consisted of fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks. The grouping of prey species, genera, or families rendered 14 food groups, as follows: Mollusks, Amphipods, Copepods, Stomatopods, Penaeus vannamei, Brachiuran Larvae, Stomatopods Larvae, Family Albuneidae Larvae, Other crustaceans, Anchoa ischana, Anchoa lucida, Other fishes, Salps and Unidentified organic matter. Anchoa ischana dominated the trophic spectrum in both years. Although, Amphipods, Anchoa lucida and Other fishes had important indexes in 1994. There was high variability in the diet composition by month. Nevertheless, in 1993, from February to August, crustaceans as a whole dominated the diet. In 1994, crustaceans only dominated in March and August. No differences in food habits were found between immature fish, males and females. The diet of the Red snapper varies as they grow, although the same food groups are found always. At the adult phase, in length classes over 261 mm FL, there is some degree of specialization, as they consume more fish, particularly engraulids.     

Prey availability and diet of maned wolf in Serra da Canastra National Park,southeastern Brazil

Analysis of 400 scats of the maned wolfChrysocyon brachyurus (Illiger, 1815), collected in Serra da Canastra National Park from November 1998 to January 2000 yielded 1688 occurrences of 69 identified food items, 49.5% of which were represented by plant items and 50.5% by animal items. According to the frequency of occurrence analysis, the most important food item categories were wolf’s fruit,Parinari obtusifolia (Chrysobalanaceae), small mammals and birds. When the estimated biomass consumption is considered, the animal items became more important (56.8%) than plant items (43.2%). Small mammals were consumed more in the dry season, while miscellaneous fruits and arthropods were consumed mostly in the wet season. Functional response was found only for the category miscellaneous fruits; however, seasonality analysis revealed that wolf’s fruit and small mammals were consumed according to their availability in the area. Prey selection was observed for most of the small mammal species, emphasizing a high level of consumption ofNecromys lasiurus, Monodelphis sp. andGracilinanus sp. The finding that most of the diet was composed of fruits and animal items from open areas of the savannah-like Cerrado led us to suggest that the maned wolf spends most of its time preying in this habitat, indicating a need to establish conservation policies for the Cerrado.     

Dry Season Diet of the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) in Hadagarh Wildlife Sanctuary,Eastern India

Dry season food habit of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) in Hadagarh Wildlife Sanctuary was characterized by scat analysis. Importance value index (IVI) of contribution of different food items in the diet of sloth bear was estimated from the undigested food remnants. Percentage of dry weight and IVI score of Ziziphus fruits was highest, termites were the most frequently occurring food item in the diet and percentage of frequency occurrence was equal for both fruits and insects. The present study, as compared to previous studies, suggests that the dietary preference of sloth bear varies according to availability of food and the habitat quality.     

Serotype characterization of Escherichia coli potentially producing enterotoxins in foods

The incidence of serotypes of Escherichia coli usually described as enterotoxins producer was investigated in 137 samples of food from different origins (animal and vegetal). The serological analysis of the somatic "O", capsular "K" and flagellar "H" antigens in 265 isolates of Escherichia coli resulted in the characterization of 34 strains, distributed in 12 serotypes. These organisms were obtained from 24 samples of food of animal origin. A possible association with epidemiological markers for other test, were analyzed. The fermentation pattern of the 34 strains with melibiose, raffinose, sucrose, salicin, and sorbitol allowed classification into 11 biotypes. However the marked heterogenicity of the biotypes distributed among the serotypes did not allow correlation between the serofermentative types and the origin of the food. The other tests based on hemolysis and hemagglutinating ability did not aid in the differentiation of the phenotypes.     

Omnivory of an Insular Lizard: Sources of Variation in the Diet of Podarcis lilfordi (Squamata,Lacertidae)

Through 17 years and from a sample of 7,790 faecal pellets and 26,346 prey items, we studied the diet of the Balearic lizard Podarcis lilfordi in Aire Island (Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain). We analysed the diet in terms of prey frequencies, as well as by their volume and biomass contributions. The diet of the Balearic lizard was extremely variable through the years, months and areas under study. The dominance of small clumped prey, particularly ants, was confirmed. However, the main contribution by volume corresponded to beetles, with a relevant role for Diplopoda and terrestrial Isopoda during some months and at particular areas of the island. Several prey items were probably captured at the base of shrubs, under stones or inside rock crevices. Therefore, our estimations of electivity would only be reliable for epigeal and flying prey. The capacity of the Balearic lizard to include marine subsidies in its diet, such as coastal crustaceans, is noteworthy. Also, its consumption of carrion from carcasses of gulls and rabbits and leftovers from human visitors is remarkable. Juvenile conspecifics can also be a sporadic food resource, especially during the second half of summer, whereas the consumption of vegetal matter is constant for each whole year. The shifts of vegetal exploitation among areas of the island and months take place according to availability of different plant species at each area or during a given period. Thus, lizards are able to conduct a thorough monitoring of plant phenology, exploiting a large variety of plant species. Omnivory does not imply the indiscriminate inclusion of any edible food in its diet. Rather, the inclusion of several food items means the adoption of a wide range of foraging behaviours adapted to the exploitation of each food resource.     

The autecology of the chub, Squalius cephalus (L.), of the River Lugg and the Afon Llynfi

(1) Seasonal variation in the intensity of feeding activity was demonstrated in two chub populations. Feeding activity was higher in summer and more pronounced in the young age-classes. The intensity of feeding activity was significantly correlated with temperature. (2) The diet of the total chub populations embraced a wide range of food items but vegetable material predominated. Substrate material was frequently encountered which suggested considerable feeding on the river bed. Fish were the most important animal food, by volume, in the River Lugg but Trichoptera larvae were most important in the Afon Llynfi. No remains of salmon parr or trout were found in chub stomachs but grayling were eaten. The most important prey fish, by volume, was the eel but cyprinids, especially minnows, were most important by frequency of occurrence. (3) Seasonal variation in the composition of the diet could be related to availability of food organisms but some selection was shown. Vegetable foods were most important in summer; animal foods, Trichoptera larvae in particular, were important in winter. (4) Analysis of the variation in the composition of the diet with age revealed several trends, notably a decrease in the importance of plant material, aquatic and aerial insects with age and a corresponding increase in the importance of larger prey foods such as fish, frogs and crayfish. (5) The commonly held view that chub are deleterious to salmonid stocks was examined. The absence of direct predation and the small likelihood of direct competition suggests that this view is incorrect.     

Diet of characin,Brycon falcatus (Muller and Troschel, 1844) in the Amazon Basin: a case study on an attractant for fish in the Teles Pires River

The use of fresh soybeans as an attractant in fishing has been altering the diet of the characiform Brycon falcatus, which are thriving at fishing spots. This has subsequently affected the amount of abdominal fat in the species from the Tapajós River basin, Southern Amazon. In the Teles Pires River basin region, one of the most common capture techniques employed by fishermen is the use of attractant feeds (soybeans, corn, cassava) at certain locations to attract mostly omnivorous fish. Tourists also feed fish chips and breadcrumbs. In the experimental design, rivers were mapped according to attractant availability to develop an attractant‐density classification system comprising four rivers with different attractant densities (low, medium, and high), plus a river serving as control (no attractants). Monthly collections were carried out during the 2012 and 2013 dry seasons. For diet analyses, methods of frequency of occurrence and relative volume were used to calculate the feeding index (IAi) of 97 specimens. For analyses of abdominal fat, an index was calculated by dividing the wet weight of the abdominal fat by the total wet weight of each individual. Standard length ranged from 15.0 to 48.5 cm, and weight between 0.18 and 4.40 kg. Composition and diversity of diet items changed with the increasing density of attractants. In the river with a high attractant density, fresh soybeans and corn were dominant diet items; in the control river, the diet was natural (e.g. seeds, fruits, leaves, and insects) and therefore similar to those described for B. falcatus in undisturbed environments. Fish collected from rivers with high attractant densities were in better condition than those from the river with no attractants. Although use of attractants is prohibited by State legislation, there are no inspections. This study clearly shows an alteration in the natural diet and abdominal fat of B. falcatus resulting from an imbalanced, high‐calorie feed via an attractant. It is recommended that these areas be monitored for the preservation of B. falcatus.     

Badger Meles meles diet: a review of literature from the former Soviet Union

We review 69 studies of the diet of Badgers Meles meles L. in the former Soviet Union, using information from 58 Russian-language papers. Animal foods occurred more frequently in the diet than vegetal foods and constituted, on average, 62% of all intake by volume. The most important individual food categories were insects (30% by volume) and small mammals (20% by volume), which appear to be staple foods of Badgers over virtually the whole of the former Soviet Union. Earthworms were mentioned in only a few reports and never exceeded 5% of the diet by volume. Other animal foods included birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, molluscs and carrion. Fruits were seasonally important in some areas while roots, tubers, bulbs, cereals and nuts were also eaten; but in general, the Soviet literature lacks detailed information about vegetal foods. Many authors comment on seasonal variation in the diet and there was statistically significant seasonal variation in the frequency with which small mammals, reptiles, insects and vegetal foods were eaten. No largescale geographical trends were apparent in the composition of the diet, but foods which were of minor importance overall, such as reptiles, amphibians and molluscs, were sometimes eaten with high frequency in particular localities. The results support the view that Badgers are opportunistic, generalist foragers, with a preference for animal foods when these are available.     

Analyses of otter (Lutra lutra) faeces from Deeside, N.E. Scotland

Otter faeces were collected at monthly intervals from around two lakes near the River Dee in Aberdeenshire in 1975 and 1976. They were analysed to show the frequency of occurrence of identifiable undigested items and also the relative bulk of these different items. Statistical differences were recorded in frequency of occurrence. The main food was eel in both years with small perch also important in January to June and amphibia in the spring. A reduction in the frequency of eel in the faeces was associated with fewer observations of otters.     

Diet composition of chub,Squalius cephalus (Teleostei: Cyprinidae), in Lake Tödürge,Sivas, Turkey

Digestive tract contents of 241 specimens captured between March 1998 and November 1999 were analysed using both qualitative and quantitative methods to determine diet composition and feeding habits of Squalius cephalus (L., 1758) inhabiting Lake Tödürge, Turkey. Ages ranged from I to VI years; 60.6% of the fish were females, 39.4% males. The chub population appeared to consume a wide range of food items such as phytoplankton, zooplankton, nematodes, insects, fish, macrophytes, plant and animal detritus, whereby zooplankton (69.2%) predominated. Although individuals in the age I group preferred plankton (phytoplankton frequently; zooplankton infrequently), the older specimens (age groups IV, V and VI) behaved mostly as carnivores but also consumed some macrophytes. While there were no significant differences between diet compositions of males and females, seasonal changes were observed in frequency of occurrence, quality and quantity of consumption, and feeding activity. The chub specimens fed most heavily during spring (the pre‐spawning period: March, April and May). Highest food volume (13.0 cm³) consumed was in May and the lowest in September (2.0 cm³) while also being correlated with temperature. All of the food items were found in the digestive tract (82.1% of the specimens examined over all seasons). Highest fullness (84.9%) was reached in autumn and the lowest during summer (79.8%).     

Food Habits and Seed Dispersal by the White-Eared Opossum,Didelphis albiventris,in Southern Brazil

The food habits and seed dispersal promoted by the marsupial Didelphis albiventris (Marsupialia: Didelphidae) were investigated in two forest fragments of Curitiba, southern Brazil, between February 1995 and February 1997. Forty live traps were set uniformly in the fragments for opossum captures and collection of their scats. Diet was determined by fecal analysis and seed dispersal was tested through seed germination experiments. With a total of 1842 traps set, 71 scats of the white-eared opossum were collected, and 51 contained seeds. The opossum is omnivorous, consuming invertebrates (100% of occurrence in scats), fruits (76%) and vertebrates (58%). Common animal food items were those found in the litter. Diversities of food items were similar among opossums of different age classes. Seeds of several plant species passed undamaged through the guts and remained viable. Fruits from pioneer plants were the main ones consumed. Based on these results, this omnivorous opossum must be an effective seed disperser in southern Brazil.     

Golden jackal (Canis aureus L.) diet in Southern Greece

The diet of jackals was studied in the Mediterranean lowlands of Fokida and Samos island, Greece, by analyzing 127 scats collected between January 2002 and May 2003. Across all seasons frequencies of food items show that the most common items were mammals (frequency 42.7%, biomass 69.8%) and birds (12.0%, biomass 27.7%). Although the frequencies of plant material (27.3%) and insects (18.0%) were quite high, their biomass contribution was low (1.7%, 0.8% respectively). Most of the biomass consumed composed of mammals of domestic livestock origin (55.9%) which were presumably scavenged. This reveals the importance of this food item to the opportunistic jackals in wildlife-poor ecosystems like the anthropogenic Mediterranean lowlands. The occurrence of small mammals in the scats was very low while very few traces of grass and human refuse (such as leftovers of meals, plastic, pieces of paper etc.) were found in the diet of jackals. Furthermore, the findings support the opportunistic nature of a species capable to exploit any easily available food source.     

Population responses of two omnivorous fish species to impoundment of a Brazilian tropical river

Brycon gouldingi and B. falcatus were the most abundant and widespread of five species of the genus captured in a sampling study encompassing 5 years (1995–2000) in the upper Rio Tocantins, where the river was impounded by the Serra da Mesa hydroelectric dam. Given that impoundments constitute a disturbance to which species will show demographic and biological responses, we assessed such responses of these two omnivorous fishes, whose genus is regarded as vulnerable to impoundments. Both species increased greatly in numbers during the initial reservoir filling period. Brycon gouldingi had higher abundance values than B. falcatus in all sampling months, except in the pre-impoundment period. Both species showed a significant weight increment relative to body length during the time they remained in the reservoir. No reproductive individuals of B. gouldingi were recorded in the study area, but those few of Brycon falcatus were found in both wet and dry seasons, suggesting a more opportunistic strategy of reproduction. Both species were omnivorous and overlapped broadly in diet. The proportions of dietary items, however, varied in relation to fish size class and water dynamics (lotic versus lentic sites). Terrestrial arthropods composed a larger proportion of the diet of smaller-sized individuals and those from lentic sites, whereas seeds and fruits contributed more to the diet of both larger-sized individuals and those from lotic environments. Except for fish and aquatic heteropterans, which were consumed mainly in the reservoir, all other food items were allochthonous, indicating the dependence of these two species of Brycon on the terrestrial environment. The two species responded similarly to the alterations imposed by the impoundment of the upper Tocantins, although reproduction/recruitment pattern was slightly different between species. As observed in other regions of Brazil, impoundments and deforestation appear to produce negative cumulative effects on species of Brycon. These impacts call for greater efforts to conserve and manage members of this diverse and widespread genus. Handling editor: S.M. Thomaz     

Contribution to the study of alimentation of lowland gorillas in the natural state,in Río Muni,republic of equatorial guinea (West Africa)

Some important aspects of the alimentation of the lowland gorillas have been studied in eight different localities in Río Muni (West Africa) during several periods of time from 1956 to 1969; our observations totalize 672 hr, of which 54.5 hr have been of direct visual contact with the animals. Also included are 29 hr of direct visual contact with the mountain gorillas in Rwanda (Central Africa) during the months of July and August, 1972. We list 92 vegetal species and one product of animal origin consumed by these primates. We also analyze the different vegetal products consumed by these animals in different biotopes and in relation to the stational cycles and their organoleptic factors. Our results indicate that the preferred food is made of three different species ofAframomum, and that gorillas like sweet-sour flavors and are attracted by green and intense red colors. We also analyze some behavioral patterns directed to the exploitation of different biotopes (Primary Equatorial Forest) and new vegetable especies introduced by man.