C1q/TNF-related protein-3 (CTRP3), a novel adipokine that regulates hepatic glucose output

Adipose tissue-derived adipokines play important roles in controlling systemic insulin sensitivity and energy balance. Our recent efforts to identify novel metabolic mediators produced by adipose tissue have led to the discovery of a highly conserved family of secreted proteins, designated as C1q/TNF-related proteins 1-10 (CTRP1 to -10). However, physiological functions regulated by CTRPs are largely unknown. Here we provide the first in vivo functional characterization of CTRP3. We show that circulating levels of CTRP3 are inversely correlated with leptin levels; CTRP3 increases with fasting, decreases in diet-induced obese mice with high leptin levels, and increases in leptin-deficient ob/ob mice. A modest 3-fold elevation of plasma CTRP3 levels by recombinant protein administration is sufficient to lower glucose levels in normal and insulin-resistant ob/ob mice, without altering insulin or adiponectin levels. The glucose-lowering effect in mice is linked to activation of the Akt signaling pathway in liver and a marked suppression of hepatic gluconeogenic gene expression. Consistent with its effects in mice, CTRP3 acts directly and independently of insulin to regulate gluconeogenesis in cultured hepatocytes. In humans, alternative splicing generates two circulating CTRP3 isoforms differing in size and glycosylation pattern. The two human proteins form hetero-oligomers, an association that does not require interdisulfide bond formation and appears to protect the longer isoform from proteolytic cleavage. Recombinant human CTRP3 also reduces glucose output in hepatocytes by suppressing gluconeogenic enzyme expression. This study provides the first functional evidence linking CTRP3 to hepatic glucose metabolism and establishes CTRP3 as a novel adipokine.     

LRP6 protein regulates low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-mediated LDL uptake

Genetic variations in LRP6 gene are associated with high serum LDL cholesterol levels. We have previously shown that LDL clearance in peripheral B-lymphocytes of the LRP6(R611C) mutation carriers is significantly impaired. In this study we have examined the role of wild type LRP6 (LRP6(WT)) and LRP6(R611C) in LDL receptor (LDLR)-mediated LDL uptake. LDL binding and uptake were increased when LRP6(WT) was overexpressed and modestly reduced when it was knocked down in LDLR-deficient CHO (ldlA7) cells. These findings implicated LRP6 in LDLR-independent cellular LDL binding and uptake. However, LRP6 knockdown in wild type CHO cells resulted in a much greater decline in LDL binding and uptake compared with CHO-ldlA7 cells, suggesting impaired function of the LDLR. LDLR internalization was severely diminished when LRP6 was knocked down and was restored after LRP6 was reintroduced. Further analysis revealed that LRP6(WT) forms a complex with LDLR, clathrin, and ARH and undergoes a clathrin-mediated internalization after stimulation with LDL. LDLR and LRP6 internalizations as well as LDL uptake were all impaired in CHO-k1 cells expressing LRP6(R611C). These studies identify LRP6 as a critical modulator of receptor-mediated LDL endocytosis and introduce a mechanism by which variation in LRP6 may contribute to high serum LDL levels.     

Defining the contribution of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and protein kinase C (PKC) in regulation of glucose uptake by metformin in skeletal muscle cells

The importance of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and protein kinase C (PKC) as effectors of metformin (Met) action on glucose uptake (GU) in skeletal muscle cells was investigated. GU in L6 myotubes was stimulated 2-fold following 16 h of Met treatment and acutely enhanced by insulin in an additive fashion. Insulin-stimulated GU was sensitive to PI3K inhibition, whereas that induced by Met was not. Met and its related biguanide, phenformin, stimulated AMPK activation/phosphorylation to a level comparable with that induced by the AMPK activator, 5-amino-1-β-d-ribofuranosyl-imidazole-4-carboxamide (AICAR). However, the increase in GU elicited by AICAR was significantly lower than that induced by either biguanide. Expression of a constitutively active AMPK mimicked the effects of AICAR on GU, whereas a dominant interfering AMPK or shRNA silencing of AMPK prevented AICAR-stimulated GU and Met-induced AMPK signaling but only repressed biguanide-stimulated GU by ～20%. Consistent with this, analysis of GU in muscle cells from α1(-/-)/α2(-/-) AMPK-deficient mice revealed a significant retention of Met-stimulated GU, being reduced by ～35% compared with that of wild type cells. Atypical PKCs (aPKCs) have been implicated in Met-stimulated GU, and in line with this, Met and phenformin induced activation/phosphorylation of aPKC in L6 myotubes. However, although cellular depletion of aPKC (>90%) led to loss in biguanide-induced aPKC phosphorylation, it had no effect on Met-stimulated GU, whereas inhibitors targeting novel/conventional PKCs caused a significant reduction in biguanide-induced GU. Our findings indicate that although Met activates AMPK, a significant component of Met-stimulated GU in muscle cells is mediated via an AMPK-independent mechanism that involves novel/conventional PKCs.     

SIRT3 protein deacetylates isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (IDH2) and regulates mitochondrial redox status

Mitochondria play a central role in oxidative energy metabolism and age-related diseases such as cancer. Accumulation of spurious oxidative damage can cause cellular dysfunction. Antioxidant pathways that rely on NADPH are needed for the reduction of glutathione and maintenance of proper redox status. The mitochondrial matrix protein isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (IDH2) is a major source of NADPH. Previously, we demonstrated that the NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase SIRT3 was essential for the prevention of age-related hearing loss in mice fed a calorically restricted diet. Here we provide direct biochemical and biological evidence establishing an exquisite regulatory relationship between IDH2 and SIRT3 under acute and chronic caloric restriction. The regulated site of acetylation was mapped to Lys-413, an evolutionarily invariant residue. Site-specific, genetic incorporation of N(ε)-acetyllysine into position 413 of IDH2 revealed that acetylated IDH2 displays a dramatic 44-fold loss in activity. Deacetylation by SIRT3 fully restored maximum IDH2 activity. The ability of SIRT3 to protect cells from oxidative stress was dependent on IDH2, and the deacetylated mimic, IDH2(K413R) variant was able to protect Sirt3(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts from oxidative stress through increased reduced glutathione levels. Together these results uncover a previously unknown mechanism by which SIRT3 regulates IDH2 under dietary restriction. Recent findings demonstrate that IDH2 activities are a major factor in cancer, and as such, these results implicate SIRT3 as a potential regulator of IDH2-dependent functions in cancer cell metabolism.     

Cross-talk between insulin and Wnt signaling in preadipocytes: role of Wnt co-receptor low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-5 (LRP5)

Disturbed Wnt signaling has been implicated in numerous diseases, including type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. In the present study, we have investigated cross-talk between insulin and Wnt signaling pathways using preadipocytes with and without knockdown of the Wnt co-receptors LRP5 and LRP6 and with and without knock-out of insulin and IGF-1 receptors. We find that Wnt stimulation leads to phosphorylation of insulin signaling key mediators, including Akt, GSK3β, and ERK1/2, although with a lower fold stimulation and slower time course than observed for insulin. These Wnt effects are insulin/IGF-1 receptor-dependent and are lost in insulin/IGF-1 receptor double knock-out cells. Conversely, in LRP5 knockdown preadipocytes, insulin-induced phosphorylation of IRS1, Akt, GSK3β, and ERK1/2 is highly reduced. This effect is specific to insulin, as compared with IGF-1, stimulation and appears to be due to an inducible interaction between LRP5 and the insulin receptor as demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation. These data demonstrate that Wnt and insulin signaling pathways exhibit cross-talk at multiple levels. Wnt induces phosphorylation of Akt, ERK1/2, and GSK3β, and this is dependent on insulin/IGF-1 receptors. Insulin signaling also involves the Wnt co-receptor LRP5, which has a positive effect on insulin signaling. Thus, altered Wnt and LRP5 activity can serve as modifiers of insulin action and insulin resistance in the pathophysiology of diabetes and metabolic syndrome.