The Drosophila JNK pathway controls the morphogenesis of the egg dorsal appendages and micropyle.

During Drosophila oogenesis, the formation of the egg respiratory appendages and the micropyle require the shaping of anterior and dorsal follicle cells. Prior to their morphogenesis, cells of the presumptive appendages are determined by integrating dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior positional information provided by the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Decapentaplegic (Dpp) pathways, respectively. We show here that another signaling pathway, the Drosophila Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) cascade, is essential for the correct morphogenesis of the dorsal appendages and the micropyle during oogenesis. Mutant follicle cell clones of members of the JNK pathway, including DJNKK/hemipterous (hep), DJNK/basket (bsk), and Djun, block dorsal appendage formation and affect the micropyle shape and size, suggesting a late requirement for the JNK pathway in anterior chorion morphogenesis. In support of this view, hep does not affect early follicle cell patterning as indicated by the normal expression of kekkon (kek) and Broad-Complex (BR-C), two of the targets of the EGFR pathway in dorsal follicle cells. Furthermore, the expression of the TGF-beta homolog dpp, which is under the control of hep in embryos, is not coupled to JNK activity during oogenesis. We show that hep controls the expression of puckered (puc) in the follicular epithelium in a cell-autonomous manner. Since puc overexpression in the egg follicular epithelium mimics JNK appendages and micropyle phenotypes, it indicates a negative role of puc in their morphogenesis. The role of the JNK pathway in the morphogenesis of follicle cells and other epithelia during development is discussed.     

Misexpression of argos, an inhibitor of EGFR signaling in oogenesis, leads to the production of bicephalic, ventralized, and lateralized Drosophila melanogaster eggs

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathways are frequently involved in generating cell fate diversity in a number of organisms. During anterior-posterior and dorso-ventral polarity in the Drosophila egg chamber and eggshell, EGFR signaling leads to a number of determinative events in the follicle cell layer. A high level of Gurken signal leads to the expression of argos in dorsal midline cells. Lateral follicle cells, receiving a lower level of Gurken signal, can continue to express the Broad-Complex (BR-C) and differentiate into cells which produce chorionic appendages. Misexpression of argos in mid-oogenesis causes the midline cells to retain expression of BR-C, resulting in a single fused large appendage. Evidence that argos can directly repress Gurken-induced EGFR signaling is seen when premature expression of argos is induced earlier in oogenesis. It represses the Gurken signal at stage 5-6 of oogenesis which determines posterior follicle cells and occasionally leads to eggs with anteriors at both ends. We propose that the Gurken signal at stage 9 of oogenesis induces follicle cells to take on two fates, dorsal midline and lateral, each producing different parts of the eggshell and that argos is one of the key downstream genes required to select between these two fates.     

The Mirror transcription factor links signalling pathways in Drosophila oogenesis

Many genetic cascades are conserved in evolution, yet they trigger different responses and hence determine different cell fates at specific times and positions in development. At stage 10 of oogenesis, mirror is expressed in anterior-dorsal follicle cells, and we show that this is dependent upon the Gurken signal from the oocyte. The fringe gene is expressed in a complementary pattern in posterior-ventral follicle cells at the same stage. Ectopic expression of mirror represses fringe expression, thus linking the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signalling pathway to the Fringe signalling pathway via Mirror. The EGFR pathway also triggers the cascade that leads to dorsal-ventral axis determination in the embryo. We used twist as an embryonic marker for ventral cells. Ectopic expression of mirror in the follicle cells during oogenesis ultimately represses twist expression in the embryo, and leads to similar phenotypes to the ectopic expression of the activated form of EGFR. Thus, mirror also controls the Toll signalling pathway, leading to Dorsal nuclear transport. In summary, we show that the Mirror homeodomain protein provides a link that coordinates the Gurken/EGFR signalling pathway (initiated in the oocyte) with the Fringe/Notch/Delta pathway (in follicle cells). This coordination is required for epithelial morphogenesis, and for producing the signal in ventral follicle cells that determines the dorsal/ventral axis of the embryo.     

EGFR-dependent network interactions that pattern Drosophila eggshell appendages

Similar to other organisms, Drosophila uses its Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) multiple times throughout development. One crucial EGFR-dependent event is patterning of the follicular epithelium during oogenesis. In addition to providing inductive cues necessary for body axes specification, patterning of the follicle cells initiates the formation of two respiratory eggshell appendages. Each appendage is derived from a primordium comprising a patch of cells expressing broad (br) and an adjacent stripe of cells expressing rhomboid (rho). Several mechanisms of eggshell patterning have been proposed in the past, but none of them can explain the highly coordinated expression of br and rho. To address some of the outstanding issues in this system, we synthesized the existing information into a revised mathematical model of follicle cell patterning. Based on the computational model analysis, we propose that dorsal appendage primordia are established by sequential action of feed-forward loops and juxtacrine signals activated by the gradient of EGFR signaling. The model describes pattern formation in a large number of mutants and points to several unanswered questions related to the dynamic interaction of the EGFR and Notch pathways.     

Role of Notch pathway in terminal follicle cell differentiation during Drosophila oogenesis

 During Drosophila oogenesis the body axes are determined by signaling between the oocyte and the somatic follicle cells that surround the egg chamber. A key event in the establishment of oocyte anterior-posterior polarity is the differential patterning of the follicle cell epithelium along the anterior-posterior axis. Both the Notch and epithelial growth factor (EGF) receptor pathways are required for this patterning. To understand how these pathways act in the process we have analyzed markers for anterior and posterior follicle cells accompanying constitutive activation of the EGF receptor, loss of Notch function, and ectopic expression of Delta. We find that a constitutively active EGF receptor can induce posterior fate in anterior but not in lateral follicle cells, showing that the EGF receptor pathway can act only on predetermined terminal cells. Furthermore, Notch function is required at both termini for appropriate expression of anterior and posterior markers, while loss of both the EGF receptor and Notch pathways mimic the Notch loss-of-function phenotype. Ectopic expression of the Notch ligand, Delta, disturbs EGF receptor dependent posterior follicle cell differentiation and anterior-posterior polarity of the oocyte. Our data are consistent with a model in which the Notch pathway is required for early follicle cell differentiation at both termini, but is then repressed at the posterior for proper determination of the posterior follicle cells by the EGF receptor pathway. Received: 5 November 1998 / Accepted: 14 December 1998     

Sprouty is a general inhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling.

Sprouty was originally identified as an inhibitor of Drosophila FGF receptor signaling during tracheal development. By following the capacity of ectopic Sprouty to abolish the pattern of activated MAP kinase in embryos, we show that Sprouty can inhibit other receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling pathways, namely the Heartless FGF receptor and the EGF receptor. Similarly, in wing imaginal discs, ectopic Sprouty abolishes activated MAP kinase induced by the EGF receptor pathway. Sprouty expression is induced by the EGFR pathway in some, but not all, tissues in which EGFR is activated, most notably in follicle cells of the ovary, the wing imaginal disc and the eye disc. In the ovary, induction of sprouty expression follows the pattern of EGFR activation in the follicle cells. Generation of homozygous sprouty mutant follicle-cell clones demonstrates an essential role for Sprouty in restricting EGFR activation throughout oogenesis. At the stage when dorso-ventral polarity of the follicle cells is established, Sprouty limits the ventral expansion of the activating Gurken signal. Later, when dorsal appendage fates are determined, reduction of signaling by Sprouty facilitates the induction of inter-appendage cell fates. The capacity of Sprouty to reduce or eliminate accumulation of activated MAP kinase indicates that in vivo it intersects with the pathway upstream to MAP kinase. The ability of ectopic Sprouty to rescue lethality caused by activated Raf suggests that it may impinge upon the pathway by interacting with Raf or downstream to it.     

Bottle cell formation in relation to mesodermal patterning in the Xenopus embryo

The appearance of bottle cells at the dorsal vegetal/marginal boundary of Xenopus embryos marks the onset of blastopore formation. The conditions leading to this epithelial activity were investigated by inducing bottle cells ectopically in the animal region with VegT or different members of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta family. Morphological studies on the ectopic bottle cells indicate their close similarity to the endogenous bottle cells at the dorsal blastopore lip. The subepithelial cells of the induced animal region express mesodermal genes in a pattern reminiscent to that observed on the dorsal lip. Relating this expression pattern to the position of the ectopic bottle cells leads to the conclusion that bottle cells form in regions of high TGF-beta signalling. The specific inhibitory effects of cerberus on ectopically induced bottle cells revealed that nodal related growth factors are the intrinsic signals that elicit bottle cell formation in the normal embryo. In addition, fibroblast growth factor signalling is an essential precondition for this epithelial response as it is for mesoderm formation. We conclude that bottle cell formation in the epithelial layer of the gastrula is closely linked to mesodermal patterning in the subepithelial tissues.     

Loss of cytotoxic effect of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on EGF receptor overexpressing cells is associated with attenuation of EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activity

The biological activity of epidermal growth factor (EGF) is mediated through the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity of the EGF receptor (EGFR). In numerous cell types, binding of EGF to the EGFR stimulates the tyrosine kinase activity of the receptor eventually leading to cell proliferation. In tumor-derived cell lines, which overexpress the EGFR, however, growth inhibition is often seen in response to EGF. The mechanism for growth inhibition is unclear. To study the relationship between growth inhibition and EGFR kinase activity, we have used a cell line (PC-10) derived from a human squamous cell carcinoma that overexpresses EGFR. When exposed to 25 ng/ml EGF at low cell densities (1,300 cells/cm²), PC-10 cells exhibit cell death. In contrast, if EGF is added to high density cultures, no EGF mediated cell death is seen. When PC-10 cells were maintained at confluency in the presence of 25 ng/ml EGF for a period of 1 month, they were subsequently found competent to proliferate at low density in the presence of EGF. We designate these cells APC-10. The APC-10 cells exhibited a unique response to EGF, and no concentration of EGF tested could produce cell death. By ¹²⁵I-EGF binding analysis and [³⁵S]methionine labeling of EGFR, it was found that the total number of EGFR on the cell surface of APC-10 was not decreased relative to PC-10. No difference between PC-10 and APC-10 was seen in EGF binding affinity to the EGFR. Significantly, EGF stimulated autophosphorylation of the EGFR of APC-10 was 8–10-fold lower than that of PC-10. This reduced kinase activity was also seen in vitro in membrane preparations for EGFR autophosphorylation as well as phosphorylation of an exogenously added substrate. No difference between PC-10 and APC-10 in the overall pattern of EGFR phosphorylation in the presence or absence of EGF was detectable. However, the serine and threonine phosphorylation of the EGFR of APC-10 cells was consistently 2–3-fold lower than that seen in PC-10 cells. These results suggest a novel mechanism for EGFR overexpressing cells to survive EGF exposure, one that involves an attenuation of the tyrosine kinase activity of the EGFR in the absence of a change in receptor levels or receptor affinity. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Mechanisms of Gurken-dependent pipe regulation and the robustness of dorsoventral patterning in Drosophila

The restriction of Pipe, a potential glycosaminoglycan-modifying enzyme, to ventral follicle cells of the egg chamber is essential for dorsoventral axis formation in the Drosophila embryo. pipe repression depends on the TGFalpha-like ligand Gurken, which activates the Drosophila EGF receptor in dorsal follicle cells. An analysis of Raf mutant clones shows that EGF signalling is required cell-autonomously in all dorsal follicle cells along the anteroposterior axis of the egg chamber to repress pipe. However, the autoactivation of EGF signalling important for dorsal follicle cell patterning has no influence on pipe expression. Clonal analysis shows that also the mirror-fringe cassette suggested to establish a secondary signalling centre in the follicular epithelium is not involved in pipe regulation. These findings support the view that the pipe domain is directly delimited by a long-range Gurken gradient. Pipe induces ventral cell fates in the embryo via activation of the Sp?tzle/Toll pathway. However, large dorsal patches of ectopic pipe expression induced by Raf clones rarely affect embryonic patterning if they are separated from the endogenous pipe domain. This indicates that potent inhibitory processes prevent pipe dependent Toll activation at the dorsal side of the egg.     

Laminin A is required for follicle cell-oocyte signaling that leads to establishment of the anterior-posterior axis in Drosophila

The establishment of the anterior-posterior (AP) axis in Drosophila melanogaster requires signaling between the oocyte and surrounding somatic follicle cells during oogenesis [1] [2]. First, a signal from the oocyte (Gurken (Grk), a transforming growth factor-alpha (TGFalpha) homolog) is received by predetermined terminal follicle cells in which the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway is activated and a posterior fate is induced [2] [3] [4]. Later, the posterior follicle cells send an unidentified signal back to the oocyte, which leads to the reorganization of its cytoskeletal polarity. This reorganization is required for proper localization of maternal determinants, such as oskar (osk) and bicoid (bcd) mRNAs, that determine the AP polarity of the oocyte and the subsequent embryo [2]. We show here that when the gene lanA, which encodes the extracellular matrix component laminin A, is mutated in posterior follicle cells, localization of AP determinants is disrupted in the underlying oocyte. Posterior follicle-cell differentiation and follicle cell apical-basal polarity are unaffected in the lanA mutant cells, suggesting that laminin A is required for correct signaling from the posterior follicle cells that polarizes the oocyte. This is the first evidence that the extracellular matrix is involved in the establishment of a major body axis.     

Drosophila alpha-actinin in ovarian follicle cells is regulated by EGFR and Dpp signalling and required for cytoskeletal remodelling

alpha-Actinin is an evolutionarily conserved actin filament crosslinking protein with functions in both muscle and non-muscle cells. In non-muscle cells, interactions between alpha-actinin and its many binding partners regulate cell adhesion and motility. In Drosophila, one non-muscle and two muscle-specific alpha-actinin isoforms are produced by alternative splicing of a single gene. In wild-type ovaries, alpha-actinin is ubiquitously expressed. The non-muscle alpha-actinin mutant Actn(Delta233), which is viable and fertile, lacks alpha-actinin expression in ovarian germline cells, while somatic follicle cells express alpha-actinin at late oogenesis. Here we show that this latter population of alpha-actinin, termed FC-alpha-actinin, is absent from the dorsoanterior follicle cells, and we present evidence that this is the result of a negative regulation by combined Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Decapentaplegic signalling. Furthermore, EGFR signalling increased the F-actin bundling activity of ectopically expressed muscle-specific alpha-actinin. We also describe a novel morphogenetic event in the follicle cells that occurs during egg elongation. This event involves a transient repolarisation of the basal actin fibres and the assembly of a posterior beta-integrin-dependent adhesion site accumulating alpha-actinin and Enabled. Clonal analysis using Actn null alleles demonstrated that although alpha-actinin was not necessary for actin fibre formation or maintenance, the cytoskeletal remodelling was perturbed, and Enabled did not localise in the posterior adhesion site. Nevertheless, epithelial morphogenesis proceeded normally. This work provides the first evidence that alpha-actinin is involved in the organisation of the cytoskeleton in a non-muscle tissue in Drosophila.