Proteomic distinction between humans and great apes based on plasma transthyretin microheterogeneity

Although humans and their closest relative, the chimpanzee are 98.5% identical in their DNA sequences, they differ in morphologic, behavioural and cognitive aspects. Recent studies imply observed differences in transthyretin (TTR) as a unique feature in human evolution. We studied differences in the molecular heterogeneity of plasma TTR between humans and great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orang-utan) using a mass spectrometry immunoassay. Compared to humans, TTR levels were higher in chimpanzees and lower in orang-utans (both P < 0.05). In all species, four major mass signals were observed. In humans, mass signals were at 13,755 ± 4, 13,875 ± 4 (greatest intensity), 13,935 ± 8 and 14,053 ± 10 Da representing native, S-cysteinylated, S-cysteinglycinylated and glutathionylated TTR, respectively. In chimpanzees and bonobos molecular masses were slightly lower than in humans (7–8 Da), whilst in gorillas and orang-utans masses of TTR adducts were respectively 20 and 100 Da lower (P < 0.05). Peak pattern and relationship to each other was similar in all species. The close relationship between humans and chimpanzees is reflected in the similarity of their post-translational modification of TTR whilst mutations on the amino acid level are indicated. Results represent a proteomic distinction between humans and great apes with the possibility of resulting functional consequences.     

Does the tropical agricultural matrix bear potential for primate conservation? A baseline study from Western Uganda

As for most large mammals, conservation research on primates usually focuses on protected areas, and yet not much is known about primate communities in land-use systems in the absence of hunting. Using line transects, we estimated population densities for four primate species in a mixed agroforest landscape up to a distance of 4000 m from a forest reserve, in a region where no primate hunting takes place. We then modelled encounter rates and cluster size in relation to landscape parameters by means of bivariate analysis and Generalised Linear Models (GLMs). Black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) were most common, with confidence intervals for density estimates of 31.1–62.8 individuals/km². Red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) occurred at 15.2–37.9 ind/km² and 13.9–36.7 ind/km² respectively, and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at 1.0–2.8 ind/km². Chimpanzee nest numbers and distribution appeared to be significantly constrained by transect forest coverage, forest coverage within 500 m and distance from the main forest, whereas monkey sightings were generally less restricted by landscape variables. The considerable population density of monkeys suggests that, in the absence of hunting, mixed agroforest systems may play a relevant role in primate conservation and highlight that it is useful to consider primate ecology in land sharing approaches to conservation.     

Mismatches between supply and demand in wildlife tourism: Insights for assessing cultural ecosystem services

Assessing cultural ecosystem services provided by biodiversity requires a combination of ecological and social approaches. In this study, we investigated the capacity of large African mammal species to provide the cultural ecosystem service of wildlife tourism by using a supply and demand framework. First, we tested the relationship between supply and demand for large mammal species in wildlife tourism. Second, we tested whether the trophic level and body size of mammals influenced the mismatch between supply and demand, and whether the patterns of mismatches were consistent among four protected areas (PAs) in three Southern African countries. To quantify supply of species, we counted large mammals along 196 five km road transects within the four PAs; to estimate demand, we gathered 651 face-to-face questionnaires of wildlife tourists and distinguished between their expectation and hope to see specific species. Results show that a higher supply of large mammal species increased the expectation to see a species (linear regression slope β = 0.28, p < 0.01), whereas supply did not affect the hopes to see a specific species (β = −0.04, p = 0.63). Analyses of mismatches revealed that predator species were more demanded in relation to their supply than ungulates. Finally, we found that the demands of wildlife tourists for mammal species in relation to their supply were consistent across the four PAs. Supply-demand analyses reveal that species’ traits, in particular trophic level, shape the hopes of wildlife tourists to see specific mammal species. We propose that the quantification of supply-demand mismatches can be used to identify charismatic species and relevant species’ traits, and can be applied for wildlife tourism assessments within as well as across regions. Supply-demand analyses provide a useful framework and deliver indicators for better assessing cultural ecosystem services involving wildlife and nature-based tourism, and can be used for conservation management.     

Determinants of smooth-coated otter occupancy in a rapidly urbanizing coastal landscape in Southeast Asia

Urbanization often has negative impacts on wildlife, nevertheless many species can persist in heavily modified habitats. Understanding factors that promote species persistence in urbanizing landscapes is therefore important for maintaining biodiversity in changing landscapes and may inform more biodiversity-friendly development. We investigated effects of landscape-scale variables on habitat occupancy of Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) in the Inner Gulf of Thailand. In this internationally important wetland complex, 86% of natural habitats have been altered and are now highly urbanized. We conducted track and sign surveys in 60, 25 km² grid cells encompassing 1,474 km². Within each cell, we quantified the landscape cover types including urban areas, natural habitat (predominately thin ribbons of mangrove along waterways), agriculture, aquaculture, and potential prey availability using a GIS and field surveys. We used occupancy models to identify habitat variables that affected probability of detection and occupancy. Estimated otter occupancy, based on the top model, was 0.33 ± 0.07 (95% CI 0.18–0.48) and detection probability was 0.50 ± 0.05 (95% CI 0.41–0.60). Otter occupancy was positively associated with the proportion of natural habitat and the cover of traditional aquaculture ponds, but negatively associated with agriculture and urban cover. The remaining natural patches appear to act as critical refuges for otter, allowing them to persist in an otherwise heavily transformed landscape. Because aquaculture ponds are likely important prey sources for otters, it may lead to conflict with aquaculture farmers. Further studies of feeding and movement patterns in cooperation with aquaculture farmers would be beneficial for developing detailed management plans for the species in this human dominated landscape.     

Wildlife value orientations as predicting factors in support of reintroducing bison and of wolves migrating to Germany

In the light of the worldwide biodiversity convention, the return of the wolf and the planned reintroduction of the European bison to Germany are seen as success stories in efforts to protect biological diversity. Prerequisite to the successful long-term reintroduction of wild animals is the support and approval of the return of animal populations by the general public. To better understand opinions towards wildlife and wildlife management, which often underlie controversies, the influence of wildlife related value orientations has been the focus of empirical research in recent years. In the current study, we examined wildlife value orientations in a sample of German students (n = 364) majoring in three different university subjects: agriculture; landscape ecology/nature conservation; and, social sciences. Analysis showed internal consistencies among the items comprising the wildlife value orientation scale. As theoretically expected, results of multiple regression analysis revealed wildlife value orientations have great impact on a decision to support the return of wolves and bison to Germany. In conclusion, the instrument, developed in the US, turned out to be reliable and had predictive value for the use in Germany. Also, we found differences in wildlife value orientation in relation to the factors of gender and academic background. A value orientation that focuses on mutualism was usually subjected to gender and academic major interaction effects. Males and females within and between student groups placed different weight on wildlife value orientations, possibly generating a potential for conflicts relating to wildlife management decisions, such as the reintroduction of bison or the support of wolves’ return.     

Stopping schistosomes from 'monkeying-around' in chimpanzees

Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary (NICS) in Lake Victoria, Uganda is currently home to 44 wild-borne, semi-captive chimpanzees. Despite regular veterinary health checks, it only came to light recently that many animals, and sanctuary staff, were naturally infected with Schistosoma mansoni. Indeed, local schistosome transmission appears firmly engrained for intermediate snail hosts can be found along almost the entirety of Ngamba's shoreline. Here, the epidemiology of infection is a dynamic interplay between human and chimpanzee populations, as revealed by genetic analyses of S. mansoni. In this review, our present understanding of this complex and evolving situation is discussed, alongside general disease control activities in Uganda, to highlight future interventions towards stopping schistosome morbidity and transmission within this conservation sanctuary setting.     

Sources of variation contributing to production and quality attributes of Kyrgyz cashmere in Osh and Naryn provinces: Implications for industry development

We aimed to quantify the sources of variation contributing to the production and quality of cashmere produced in five districts in Osh and Naryn provinces of Kyrgyzstan. In early spring 2008 mid-side cashmere samples were taken from 719 cashmere adult females, and 41 cashmere adult males and castrates. Samples came from 53 villages and a total of 156 farmers’ flocks. For 91 goats from 33 farmers in 13 villages of two districts that had been sampled earlier, cashmere was combed from the goat at the time of a second visit (end of April 2008) when the cashmere would normally be harvested. Following standard cashmere objective measurement, data were examined using general linear modelling to quantify the effects of potential determinants. The mean fibre diameter (MFD) of cashmere differed between provinces (Osh 15.7 μm, Naryn 16.7 μm; P = 4.4 × 10⁻²⁰). About 42% of the cashmere was <16 μm, 48% was 16.0–18.0 μm and 9.5% was >18.0 μm. Most of the cashmere samples were coloured (81%), with 63% black and 19% white. The percentage of cashmere samples that were white declined as MFD increased (26% < 14 μm to 11% of >18 μm). The primary determinants of cashmere MFD of individual goats were age of goat (range 1.46 μm, P = 1.8 × 10⁻¹²) and farm (range 6.5 μm, P = 1.7 × 10⁻¹⁴). The lesser effects detected for sex (range 0.9 μm, P = 0.026) and colour of cashmere (range 1.8 μm, P = 0.023) were based on small sample sizes and are unreliable. Age of goat had important affects on fibre diameter variation (up to 1.7% in coefficient of variation, P = 5.8 × 10⁻⁶) and fibre curvature (2.5–5°/mm, P = 2.1 × 10⁻⁴). By far the greatest effect on fibre curvature was cashmere MFD (P = 3.0 × 10⁻¹⁰⁴) with a smaller effect of sex (about 5°/mm, P = 3.0 × 10⁻⁶). Village effects were detected on fibre diameter variability (range 4.5% in coefficient of variation, P = 0.027) and fibre curvature (range 15°/mm, P = 1.6 × 10⁻⁷). There was a strong negative association between increasing MFD and declining fibre curvature (−5.11 ± 0.181°/mm per 1 μm; P = 7.1 × 10⁻¹²¹; r² = 0.51). Average combed cashmere weight was 164 g, the clean cashmere content was 0.661 and median clean cashmere production was 110 g per goat (range 60–351 g). Combed cashmere production increased with altitude of the village, probably related to different moulting times as spring temperatures warmed up later in higher altitude villages up to 3200 masl. Measurements of combed cashmere MFD were coarser than the mid-side samples taken earlier in the year. There are farmers and cashmere goats in the sampled districts of Kyrgyzstan which produce the finest qualities of commercial cashmere as the vast majority of cashmere is fine, has low variation in fibre diameter and has fibre crimping (curvature) typical of Chinese and Mongolian cashmere. There is substantial scope to increase the production and commercial value of cashmere produced by Kyrgyz goats. In particular, some villages and farmers need to change their buck selection practices if they wish to produce acceptable cashmere. Farmers should separate their finer and white cashmere prior to sale.     

Surviving at the extreme: Chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda

Endangered wildlife increasingly inhabits human‐dominated landscapes outside protected areas. Large‐bodied mammals require large spaces, and their ranging may be especially impacted by landscape modifications including farming, road development and urbanisation. We studied the Wagaisa community of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Uganda, which inhabit a landscape characterised by high human population density, widespread deforestation, and rapid agricultural and infrastructural development. We aimed to assess whether this dynamic, fragmented environment constrains the chimpanzees’ ranging, and to identify critical habitat patches to aid their conservation. During March–May 2018, we assessed range use from locations of direct observations and indirect signs, corroborated by longer‐term behavioural monitoring of the chimpanzees (June 2018–December 2019). No evidence of limited ranging was found. The Wagaisa chimpanzees used an area measuring ≥ 43 km² (100% MCP) and ranged extensively in the anthropogenic matrix. Most frequently used parts of the range (‘core habitat areas’) centred around small (5–20 acres), widely dispersed remnant forest patches and exotic eucalyptus plantations. Forty per cent of chimpanzee nests were constructed in eucalyptus trees, suggesting a behavioural adjustment to landscape changes. Actions to facilitate conservation of these ‘village chimpanzees’ and others surviving in transformed human‐dominated habitat need not conflict with the sustainable development of the region.     

How far a protected area contributes to conserve habitat species composition and population structure of endangered African tree species (Benin,West Africa)

The Pendjari Biosphere Reserve located in the Sudanian zone of Bénin, is a protected area well managed, but mainly aimed at wild animal conservation. This study assessed its effectiveness to conserve habitat species composition and population structure of three endangered African tree species: Afzelia africana Sm., Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. and Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. We randomly sampled 120 plots in the protected and surrounding unprotected habitats by inventorying plant species. For the three target species, we estimated adult and juvenile densities and recorded size classes. According to floristic composition four habitats groups were recognized in relation to human disturbance, vegetation type, and moisture. These were protected savannas, unprotected savannas, old fallows and gallery forests. The estimated adult densities of A. africana were similar between protected (14 ± 1.2 tree/ha) and unprotected savannas (17 ± 0.9 tree/ha) while for P. erinaceus the adult density was significantly higher in protected (12 ± 3.7 tree/ha) than in unprotected savannas (5 ± 1.9 tree/ha). Estimated adult density of K. senegalensis was also significantly higher in protected gallery forest (40 ± 5.8 tree/ha) than in unprotected one (29 ± 4.8 tree/ha). Juvenile densities of A. africana, K. senegalensis and P. erinaceus were higher in protected habitats than in unprotected ones but the difference was not significant. Skewness coefficient indicated that populations of investigated trees were declining in their protected habitats. However, in the case of A. africana and K. senegalensis populations seemed to be mostly threatened in the protected area. We concluded that although the studied protected area is effective to conserve some habitats species compositions, protection is not sufficient to guarantee future conservation of some threatened tree species.     

The other side of the border: Austrian local residents’ attitudes towards the neighbouring Czech Šumava National Park

Attitudes towards protected areas are seen as a key factor in influencing their success. While the majority of park–people relation research has addressed local residents’ attitudes towards protected areas in their own country, analyses on their attitudes towards a neighbouring national park on the other side of the border have rarely been carried out. This study investigated the attitudes of local residents in Upper Austria towards the Czech ?umava National Park. In 2008, residents (N = 468) of four rural communities bordering the ?umava National Park answered a mailed questionnaire. Compared to national parks in general, the ?umava National Park was perceived as not providing as many ecological, social, and economic benefits as others. Psychological reactance, past visits to the ?umava National Park, and attitudes towards landscape change and national parks in general predicted attitudes towards the ?umava National Park, while group membership, except for that of being a farmer, was not significant. Variables that have been previously identified as influencing the attitudes of local residents towards protected areas also seem to be relevant for protected areas on the other side of the border, while items addressing local trans-border issues and group membership appear to be less important. Management implications are discussed.     

Patterns of frugivory of the Budongo Forest chimpanzees, Uganda

Frugivory patterns of the chimpanzees in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda were studied between June 2000 and August 2001. Chimpanzee feeding habitats, movement, group size and food eaten were assessed using focal and scan sampling. It was found that fruits were scarce during the dry season, when chimpanzees appeared and moved in large groups over long distances and raided farms at the forest edge. Chimpanzee movement out of the forest to forage was influenced by seasonal fluctuations in availability of preferred foods as some cultivated crops are perennial. Presence of chimpanzees in a specific feeding habitat was related to the availability of edible fruits both within and between months, suggesting that the presence of food may influence chimpanzee movement patterns. Therefore, a good understanding of patterns of frugivory is essential for making informed decisions about conservation of chimpanzees and other frugivores like birds and monkeys in Budongo as different forest habitats are under varying human pressure because of logging and other forms of utilization.     

Behavioral Ecology of Sympatric Chimpanzees and Gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park,Uganda: Diet

Via a field study of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, we found that their diets are seasonally similar, but diverge during lean seasons. Bwindi chimpanzees fed heavily on fruits of Ficus sp., which were largely ignored by the gorillas. Bwindi gorilla diet was overall more folivorous than chimpanzee diet, but was markedly more frugivorous than that of gorillas in the nearby Virunga Volcanoes. During 4 mo of the year Bwindi gorilla diet included more food species than that of the chimpanzees. Three factors in particular—seasonal consumption of fibrous foods by gorillas, interspecific differences in preferred fruit species, and meat consumption by chimpanzees—contributed to dietary divergence between the two species. When feeding on fruits, gorillas ate Myrianthus holstii more frequently than chimpanzees did, while chimpanzees included more figs in their annual diet. Chimpanzee diet included meat of duikers and monkeys; gorilla frequently consumed decaying wood.     

Maxillary tooth growth in the adult male babirusa (genus Babyrousa)

The growth of the maxillary canine teeth of the babirusa (genus Babyrousa) was studied on a sample of 149 adult male babirusa skulls from twenty-two international museum and private collections. Skulls from Buru, Sulawesi and the Togian Islands were represented. The continuous growth process was summarised into five stages (‘A’–‘E’) according to the position of the tip of the tooth over the bones of the skull. The supracutaneous portion of the tooth grew in a curve-linear fashion dorso-caudally, and was orientated such that the tips grew towards the midline of the cranium. The teeth of Sulawesi and Togian babirusa grew more dorsally over the nasal and frontal bones. Measurements were made on a subset of 45 teeth from Sulawesi babirusa skulls. The subcutaneous portion of the maxillary canine tooth (n = 22) increased in size from 37.3 mm (95% CI: 29.9–44.4 mm) in growth stage ‘B’ to 54.3 mm (49.4–59.2 mm) in growth stage ‘E’ as the erupted portion of the tooth (n = 19) lengthened from 81.3 mm (43.8–118.9 mm) in growth stage ‘A’ to 215.3 mm (177.8–252.9 mm) in growth stage ‘E’. The apical end of the tooth was open and thin-walled. The lumen of the tooth was filled with a cone of well vascularised dental pulp that extended almost to the tip of the tooth. The angle of curvature of the tooth within the alveolus (n = 22) decreased from 19.8 (17.3–22.3) degrees in growth stage ‘B’ to 7.4 (5.7–9.0) degrees in growth stage ‘E’. The corresponding supracutaneous angle of curvature (n = 25) reduced from 36.8 (33.6–40.1) degrees in growth stage ‘A’ to 10.7 (8.6–12.8) degrees in growth stage ‘E’.     

Effects of short- and long-term changes in spatial density on the social behavior of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

The constraints of captivity may often require non-human primates to experience restrictions in space for both long- and short-term periods of time. The tension-reduction model predicts that great apes should increase affiliative behaviors and decrease aggressive behaviors as a coping strategy. The conflict avoidance model, however, predicts that great apes should decrease all social interactions (affiliative and aggressive) as a coping strategy. The purpose of this study was to test the conflict-avoidance and tension-reduction models by examining the effects of both short-term (1–2 days) and long-term (6 months) changes in spatial density on social behavior in 23 adult captive chimpanzees (6 males, 17 females) housed at the Primate Foundation of Arizona. Affiliative (i.e., social groom, social play) and agonistic (i.e., charging display, attack) were assessed using scan-sampling techniques while subjects were rotated from high-density to low-density conditions for varying lengths of time. Results of short-term increases in spatial density (crowding) supported the conflict-avoidance strategy for females, through reduced levels of aggressive (F_1,16 = 17.11, p = 0.001) and affiliative (F_1,16 = 21.13, p < 0.001) behaviors. Males, however, supported the tension-reduction model during short-term high-density by decreasing aggression (F_1,5 = 10.53, p = 0.02) while increasing affiliation (F_1,5 = 9.10, p = 0.03). Females partially supported the tension-reduction model during long-term high-density by increasing affiliative behaviors (F_1,16 = 14.19, p = 0.002) compared to short-term high-density levels, while rates of aggression remained low. Finally, males supported the tension-reduction by reducing aggression (F_1,5 = 7.668, p = 0.04) and increasing affiliation (F_1,5 = 6.08, p = 0.05) during long-term high-density. Results confirm that chimpanzees use different strategies during short-term versus long-term increases in spatial density and that these strategies may be influenced by individual sex. However, sample sizes are small and additional research on male chimpanzees is needed.     

Identifying multiple wildlife species-crop interactions using network analysis

Managing crop damage by wildlife is a complex challenge in agrarian-wildlife landscapes. Losses to farmers and their negative attitude towards crop-raiding wildlife, compromise wildlife conservation and farmer-wildlife coexistence. Priority crop types, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors are highly integrated. Here we use cross-sectional network analysis as a conservation planning tool to simultaneously identify the crop types used by crop-raiding wildlife, and evaluate the importance of these crop-wildlife interactions relative to the socio-ecological factors that affect these interactions. The most vulnerable crops were maize, millet and fruit trees, while the most problematic crop-raiding wildlife were African elephant, bushpig, hippo, warthog and red-billed quelea. Crop damage declined with countermeasure effectiveness, farm size, and distance from river to farm, but increased with richness of attractive crops. Undamaged crops included cash crops, such as chili, onion, ginger, lemon grass and garlic. Applying network analysis to different crops and damage scenarios enables identification of the most important and influential crops, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors needed to develop effective crop protection strategies.     

Invasion status of Asiatic red-bellied squirrels in Argentina

The only known introduction of a squirrel species into South America is the case of the Asiatic red-bellied tree squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus that was introduced in the Pampas Region of Argentina in 1970. To inform management programmes, we analysed the current distribution, expansion rate, and abundance of the red-bellied squirrel in Argentina, and identified invasion pathways. Apart from the first and main focus of invasion, three other invasion foci have originated as a consequence of intentional releases between 1995 and 2000. The main invasion focus already extends over >1300 km², where estimated density averaged 15 ind ha^?1 and numbers of squirrels may reach 100,000 individuals. The area invaded in the other three invasion foci varied between <1 and 34 km² and mean densities were around 3–5 ind ha^?1. Squirrel abundance and residents’ attitude towards this introduced species in the main invasion focus make eradication unfeasible, though management actions such as control, containment and mitigation of damages should be undertaken. Eradication of the relatively small invasion foci must be immediately evaluated, with priority given to valuable conservation areas under high invasion risk.     

Acquisition of a socially learned tool use sequence in chimpanzees: Implications for cumulative culture

Cumulative culture underpins humanity's enormous success as a species. Claims that other animals are incapable of cultural ratcheting are prevalent, but are founded on just a handful of empirical studies. Whether cumulative culture is unique to humans thus remains a controversial and understudied question that has far-reaching implications for our understanding of the evolution of this phenomenon. We investigated whether one of human's two closest living primate relatives, chimpanzees, are capable of a degree of cultural ratcheting by exposing captive populations to a novel juice extraction task. We found that groups (N = 3) seeded with a model trained to perform a tool modification that built upon simpler, unmodified tool use developed the seeded tool method that allowed greater juice returns than achieved by groups not exposed to a trained model (non-seeded controls; N = 3). One non-seeded group also discovered the behavioral sequence, either by coupling asocial and social learning or by repeated invention. This behavioral sequence was found to be beyond what an additional control sample of chimpanzees (N = 1 group) could discover for themselves without a competent model and lacking experience with simpler, unmodified tool behaviors. Five chimpanzees tested individually with no social information, but with experience of simple unmodified tool use, invented part, but not all, of the behavioral sequence. Our findings indicate that (i) social learning facilitated the propagation of the model-demonstrated tool modification technique, (ii) experience with simple tool behaviors may facilitate individual discovery of more complex tool manipulations, and (iii) a subset of individuals were capable of learning relatively complex behaviors either by learning asocially and socially or by repeated invention over time. That chimpanzees learn increasingly complex behaviors through social and asocial learning suggests that humans' extraordinary ability to do so was built on such prior foundations.     

Quantifying human disturbance on antipredator behavior and flush initiation distance in yellow-bellied marmots

Human disturbance may differentially affect the behavior of wild animals and such behavioral perturbations may have fitness consequences. To understand the effects of specific types of human disturbance on antipredator behavior, a behavior whose performance enhances survival, we studied yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). We quantified both antipredator vigilance and the flight initiation distance of the marmots to an approaching human in six different colony sites where we also quantified the frequency and type of human visitation. We developed an analysis framework, using linear mixed models, and found that: (1) when the presence of motorized vehicles and bicycles was high, marmots increased the proportion of time spent vigilant (pseudo R² = 0.33 and 0.31 for motorized vehicles and bicycles, P < 0.05) and decreased the time spent foraging (pseudo R² = 0.29 and 0.23 for motorized vehicles and bicycles, P < 0.05), (2) there was no significant effect of the presence of pedestrians on the time allocated to vigilance and foraging (pseudo R² = 0.25 and 0.19, P > 0.05), (3) marmots decreased the flight initiation distance as disturbance of motorized vehicles (pseudo R² = 0.85) and pedestrians (pseudo R² = 0.84) increased (P < 0.05), and (4) when we considered bicycles as the disturbance, juveniles tolerated closer approaches than adults or yearlings (P < 0.001). Marmots thus responded to some human disturbance by adjusting time spent in foraging and shortening the tolerance distance. Since these behavioral responses could have significant implications for survival and reproduction, we should generally view human disturbance as something that can influence natural antipredator behavior. Importantly, based on an understanding of the differential effects of human activities on wildlife, reducing human disturbance should be taken into account for wildlife management. In addition, our approach will be useful to quantify differential effects of humans on wildlife and to enhance our ability to manage those impacts.     

An indicator-based method for quantifying farm multifunctionality

Production of food and fibres has traditionally been the main function of agriculture. In the last decades an increased focus on the importance of other functions has been discussed within the framework of agricultural and general land use multifunctionality. To a large extent farmers’ decisions and actions determine which functions their farming practices support. The extent of the production function is straightforward to identify and quantify but problems persist in rating functions such as ecosystem maintenance, housing, and amenity values.This paper presents a method to quantify and compare multifunctionality at farm level. Four main farm functions–production, residence, provision of wildlife habitats, and recreation–are selected to describe multifunctionality. In the quantification process indicators are identified to produce four aggregated function scores based on farm characteristics and activities. The farm data that support the indicators is derived from an interview survey conducted in 2008.The aggregated function scores vary with farm size as well as farm type; smaller, hobby-based farms in general score highest in the residence function whereas bigger, full-time farms score highest in the production, wildlife habitat, and recreation functions. This suggests that trade-offs between production development on the one side and environmental and recreational concerns on the other side may not be as high as expected. Farm of sizes 50–100 ha showed the highest multifunctionality–in this paper described as balance among functions–whilst smaller and bigger farms were biased towards mainly residence and production concerns, respectively.Challenges in quantifying functions still persist, but the suggested approach offer a method by which functionality can be compared among farms and among functions. Knowledge on the functional focus at farm level may assist both farmers and spatial planners in decision making regarding future management of agricultural landscapes.     

Illegal hunting and law enforcement during a period of economic decline in Zimbabwe: A case study of northern Gonarezhou National Park and adjacent areas

Illegal hunting of wildlife, or top-down harvesting, is a major issue in today's society, particularly in tropical ecosystems. There has been widespread concern about increasing illegal hunting of wildlife in most conservation areas in Zimbabwe following the political instability and economic decline the country faced since 2000. In this study, we focused on the northern Gonarezhou National Park (GNP), a large and unfenced protected area, and adjacent communal areas in southern Zimbabwe. We hypothesised that illegal hunting activities would (1) be perceived to have increased due to economic collapse and (2) vary with law enforcement efforts. A total of 236 local residents from eight villages adjacent to the northern GNP were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires from December 2010 to May 2011, and law enforcement data for northern GNP between 2000 and 2010 were retrieved from the park law enforcement database. A total of 26 animal species were reportedly hunted. Bushmeat consumption and the need for local trade to raise income were reported as the main reasons behind illegal hunting. Contrary to the first hypothesis, the majority of respondents (n = 156, 66%) reported that illegal hunting activities had declined between 2000 and 2010 largely due to increased park protection as also supported by law enforcement data. A total of 22 animal species were recorded as having been illegally hunted in northern GNP. The number of illegal hunters arrested declined with increased law enforcement efforts although the number of wire snares recovered and hunting dogs shot appeared to increase following increased law enforcement efforts. These results partly support the second hypothesis that illegal hunting activities would vary with law enforcement efforts.