Mammal decline in the Middle America

The Middle America is located in the Nearctic–Neotropical boundary. The combination of temperate and tropical biota of these two biogeographic regions, plus an area of biotic overlap propitiates unusually high species diversity and endemism. We present the first general assessment based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species that provides evidence of widespread decline in the conservation status of land mammals from southern U.S.A. to Panama. One in every three species considered in our study (n = 273) is classified as threatened, and the rate of biodiversity loss increased 0.64% between 2008 and 2012. Endangered species of the Middle America represents 11.8% of the global endangered mammal species, and 7.9% of the threatened species. Habitat loss and the introduction of alien species are the major threats; however, the relative impact of these threats varies among habitats. For continental species, habitat loss is prevalent, while for insular species the introduction of alien species has devastating effects. Our results suggest that if no integral multi-species conservation actions are applied in the short-term, more than 20% of the extant mammal species in the region could become extinct in the near future (10–50 years).     

New conservation status for data-deficient endemic mammals of East Africa

Knowing the exact status of several species is unimaginable since the data available is not adequate to determine their category, they are classified as Data Deficient (DD) by the IUCN. Lack of sufficient information impedes the assessment of conservation status for DD species and could lead to missing conservation opportunities for rare mammals under multiple threats. It seems appropriate that available knowledge of each species should be recorded now because the next few decades will see even more human-induced changes. The main objective is to suggest a strategic framework and establishing categories to help overcome the uncertainty regarding the conservation status of endemic mammals of East Africa. Preliminary extinction risk categories were determined based on the IUCN Red List Criterion B particularly of criteria B1 which uses the extent of occurrence. We use quantile regression to model a relationship between the time since species discovery (50 years as a reference) and log-transformed range-size of mammal species (1–20,000 km² area for a threatened category). Mammals that were described more than 50 years ago and have an EOO of less than 20,000 km² are categorized under threatened status. We found a significant positive relationship between time since species discovery and geographic range size of the non-DD mammal species for all quantile levels (p < 0.05) allowed the use of time since species discovery and geographic range size to infer the proper red list category of species. Only 16 endemic mammals currently listed as Data Deficient, should continue to be listed as so (group A). The remaining species should be re-listed as threatened (17 species) and as non-threatened (25 species, groups C and D). Our finding reduced the number of DD species of mammals of East Africa from 32.04% to 8.83%. As of the investigation of the present study, 12 (70.6%) mammals suggested for threatened categories are small-sized shrews and bats. DD species introduce greater uncertainty in estimates of overall extinction risk to the endemics, and by no means are they such species that can be considered low priorities for research. DD mammals may still face high extinction risks and may be more frequently threatened than successfully evaluated mammals. These findings may hopefully contribute to a more efficient allocation of conservation funds and more efficient development of conservation plans using data available for almost all mammalian species.     

Mismatches between supply and demand in wildlife tourism: Insights for assessing cultural ecosystem services

Assessing cultural ecosystem services provided by biodiversity requires a combination of ecological and social approaches. In this study, we investigated the capacity of large African mammal species to provide the cultural ecosystem service of wildlife tourism by using a supply and demand framework. First, we tested the relationship between supply and demand for large mammal species in wildlife tourism. Second, we tested whether the trophic level and body size of mammals influenced the mismatch between supply and demand, and whether the patterns of mismatches were consistent among four protected areas (PAs) in three Southern African countries. To quantify supply of species, we counted large mammals along 196 five km road transects within the four PAs; to estimate demand, we gathered 651 face-to-face questionnaires of wildlife tourists and distinguished between their expectation and hope to see specific species. Results show that a higher supply of large mammal species increased the expectation to see a species (linear regression slope β = 0.28, p < 0.01), whereas supply did not affect the hopes to see a specific species (β = −0.04, p = 0.63). Analyses of mismatches revealed that predator species were more demanded in relation to their supply than ungulates. Finally, we found that the demands of wildlife tourists for mammal species in relation to their supply were consistent across the four PAs. Supply-demand analyses reveal that species’ traits, in particular trophic level, shape the hopes of wildlife tourists to see specific mammal species. We propose that the quantification of supply-demand mismatches can be used to identify charismatic species and relevant species’ traits, and can be applied for wildlife tourism assessments within as well as across regions. Supply-demand analyses provide a useful framework and deliver indicators for better assessing cultural ecosystem services involving wildlife and nature-based tourism, and can be used for conservation management.     

Analysing Extinction Risk in Parrots using Decision Trees

Comparative analysis techniques have been successfully applied in a number of recent attempts to identify the species traits associated with a current threat of extinction although less often to predict which species may become threatened in the future. Although prediction of risk is obviously a priority, such analyses are undermined by the fact that there may be non-linear and non-additive relationships between the species traits used. A Decision Tree analysis can accommodate with such relationships and here it is used to explore factors affecting extinction risk in parrots. The results firstly verify that simple biological and biogeographical traits can separate threatened from non-threatened species. It is also possible to predict which species are likely to become threatened in the future. The utility of the method is not in testing evolutionary-based hypotheses to explain extinction risk, rather it is a simple and practical method of confirming and/or predicting levels of risk. For well known taxonomic groups it could be used to confirm current IUCN threat categories and identify which species should receive closest attention when the group is next reviewed. For poorly known groups it could be used to predict categories of threat for unclassified species from small groups of classified ones.     

More losers than winners: investigating Anthropocene defaunation through the diversity of population trends

The global-scale decline of animal biodiversity (‘defaunation’) represents one of the most alarming consequences of human impacts on the planet. The quantification of this extinction crisis has traditionally relied on the use of IUCN Red List conservation categories assigned to each assessed species. This approach reveals that a quarter of the world's animal species are currently threatened with extinction, and ~1% have been declared extinct. However, extinctions are preceded by progressive population declines through time that leave demographic ‘footprints’ that can alert us about the trajectories of species towards extinction. Therefore, an exclusive focus on IUCN conservation categories, without consideration of dynamic population trends, may underestimate the true extent of the processes of ongoing extinctions across nature. In fact, emerging evidence (e.g. the Living Planet Report), reveals a widespread tendency for sustained demographic declines (an average 69% decline in population abundances) of species globally. Yet, animal species are not only declining. Many species worldwide exhibit stable populations, while others are even thriving. Here, using population trend data for >71,000 animal species spanning all five groups of vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes) and insects, we provide a comprehensive global-scale assessment of the diversity of population trends across species undergoing not only declines, but also population stability and increases. We show a widespread global erosion of species, with 48% undergoing declines, while 49% and 3% of species currently remain stable or are increasing, respectively. Geographically, we reveal an intriguing pattern similar to that of threatened species, whereby declines tend to concentrate around tropical regions, whereas stability and increases show a tendency to expand towards temperate climates. Importantly, we find that for species currently classed by the IUCN Red List as ‘non-threatened’, 33% are declining. Critically, in contrast with previous mass extinction events, our assessment shows that the Anthropocene extinction crisis is undergoing a rapid biodiversity imbalance, with levels of declines (a symptom of extinction) greatly exceeding levels of increases (a symptom of ecological expansion and potentially of evolution) for all groups. Our study contributes a further signal indicating that global biodiversity is entering a mass extinction, with ecosystem heterogeneity and functioning, biodiversity persistence, and human well-being under increasing threat.     

Using predictive modelling to guide the conservation of a critically endangered coastal wetland amphibian

Amphibians are the most threatened Class of vertebrate, with wetland-associated anurans in particular suffering high levels of habitat loss. We used predictive modelling to better understand the distribution of a critically endangered South African endemic (Hyperolius pickersgilli) and to guide conservation action. MaxEnt distribution models were produced based on limited occurrence data. Predicted localities with probability of occurrence ≥60% were surveyed. Ten new sub-populations were discovered. The mean probability of occurrence for the species at wetlands where it was detected was greater than that at wetlands where it was not detected or absent. In addition, 17 known historical localities were re-visited and the species deemed absent at 8 of these. The total number of localities at which the species is now known to occur is 18, which is an increase in the known extant sub-populations of six. We recalculate the area of occupancy and extent of occurrence for the species as 108 km² and 2081.5 km², respectively; both increases on previous estimates. Implications of these changes on the IUCN Red List status of H. pickersgilli are discussed. A friction map was created to identify possible linkages between sub-populations, which can be used to guide habitat restoration and population repatriation. Given the degree of isolation of subpopulations and the potentially severe threats to most of these, urgent conservation action for H. pickersgilli remains crucial. This study provides a method for use in conservation planning for wetland-breeding amphibians in eastern coastal regions of Africa and elsewhere.     

How far a protected area contributes to conserve habitat species composition and population structure of endangered African tree species (Benin,West Africa)

The Pendjari Biosphere Reserve located in the Sudanian zone of Bénin, is a protected area well managed, but mainly aimed at wild animal conservation. This study assessed its effectiveness to conserve habitat species composition and population structure of three endangered African tree species: Afzelia africana Sm., Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. and Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. We randomly sampled 120 plots in the protected and surrounding unprotected habitats by inventorying plant species. For the three target species, we estimated adult and juvenile densities and recorded size classes. According to floristic composition four habitats groups were recognized in relation to human disturbance, vegetation type, and moisture. These were protected savannas, unprotected savannas, old fallows and gallery forests. The estimated adult densities of A. africana were similar between protected (14 ± 1.2 tree/ha) and unprotected savannas (17 ± 0.9 tree/ha) while for P. erinaceus the adult density was significantly higher in protected (12 ± 3.7 tree/ha) than in unprotected savannas (5 ± 1.9 tree/ha). Estimated adult density of K. senegalensis was also significantly higher in protected gallery forest (40 ± 5.8 tree/ha) than in unprotected one (29 ± 4.8 tree/ha). Juvenile densities of A. africana, K. senegalensis and P. erinaceus were higher in protected habitats than in unprotected ones but the difference was not significant. Skewness coefficient indicated that populations of investigated trees were declining in their protected habitats. However, in the case of A. africana and K. senegalensis populations seemed to be mostly threatened in the protected area. We concluded that although the studied protected area is effective to conserve some habitats species compositions, protection is not sufficient to guarantee future conservation of some threatened tree species.     

Ecological and socio-economic factors affecting extinction risk in parrots

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most threatened bird orders with 28 % (111 of 398) of extant species classified as threatened under IUCN criteria. We confirmed that parrots have a lower Red List Index (higher aggregate extinction risk) than other comparable bird groups, and modeled the factors associated with extinction risk. Our analyses included intrinsic biological, life history and ecological attributes, external anthropogenic threats, and socio-economic variables associated with the countries where the parrot species occur, while we controlled for phylogenetic dependence among species. We found that the likelihood of parrot species being classified as threatened was less for species with larger historical distribution size, but was greater for species with high forest dependency, large body size, long generation time, and greater proportion of the human population living in urban areas in the countries encompassing the parrots’ home ranges. The severity of extinction risk (from vulnerable to critically endangered) was positively related to the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of the countries of occurrence, endemism to a single country, and lower for species used as pets. A disproportionate number of 16 extinct parrot species were endemic to islands and single countries, and were large bodied, habitat specialists. Agriculture, hunting, trapping, and logging are the most frequent threats to parrots worldwide, with variation in importance among regions. We use multiple methods to rank countries with disproportionately high numbers of threatened parrot species. Our results promote understanding of global and regional factors associated with endangerment in this highly threatened taxonomic group, and will enhance the prioritization of conservation actions.     

Extinction thresholds and negative responses of Afrotropical ant-following birds to forest cover loss in oil palm and agroforestry landscapes

Afrotropical ant-following birds are vulnerable to forest loss and disturbance, but critical habitat thresholds regarding their abundance and species richness in human-dominated landscapes, including industrial oil palm plantations, have never been assessed. We measured forest cover through Landsat imagery and recorded species richness and relative abundance of 20 ant-following birds in 48 plots of 1-km², covering three landscapes of Southwest Cameroon: Korup National Park, smallholder agroforestry areas (with farms embedded in forest), and an industrial oil palm plantation. We evaluated differences in encounter frequency and species richness among landscapes, and the presence of critical thresholds through enhanced adaptive regression through hinges. All species were detected in Korup National Park and the agroforestry landscape, which had similar forest cover (>85%). Only nine species were found in the oil palm plantation (forest cover = 10.3 ± 3.3%). At the 1-km² scale, the number of species and bird encounters were comparable in agroforests and the protected area: mean species richness ranged from 12.2 ± 0.6 in the park and 12.2 ± 0.6 in the agroforestry matrix to 1.0 ± 0.4 in the industrial oil palm plantation; whereas encounters decreased from 34.4 ± 3.2 to 26.1 ± 2.9 and 1.3 ± 0.4, respectively. Bird encounters decreased linearly with decreasing forest cover, down to an extinction threshold identified at 24% forest cover. Species richness declined linearly by ca. one species per 7.4% forest cover lost. We identified an extinction threshold at 52% forest cover for the most sensitive species (Criniger chloronotus, Dicrurus atripennis, and Neocossyphus poensis). Our results show that substantial proportions of forests are required to sustain complete ant-following bird assemblages in Afrotropical landscapes and confirm the high sensitivity of this bird guild to deforestation after industrial oil palm development. Securing both forest biodiversity and food production in an Afrotropical production landscape may be best attained through a combination of protected areas and wildlife-friendly agroforestry.     

A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF MODERN GENERIC CONCEPTS IN LICHENOLOGY

After a brief historical survey, some current trends in the delimitation of lichen genera are discussed. A widespread tendency is that of elevating any supposedly monophyletic group of species to genus rank. As the term ‘ monophyletic ’ has no lower limit, this is likely to result in an explosive inflation of new genera, in a severe loss of the information carried by generic names and in a high degree of nomenclatural disorder. Five criteria are proposed for the acceptance or rejection of new generic segregates: (1) DNA testing for monophyly, (2) phylo-genetic analysis, (3) number of characters used, (4) number of species considered, (5) information content of the new splittings. Upon a critical analysis of several recent generic segregations, a more flexible approach to taxonomic ranks is recommended, and particularly, when most of the suggested criteria are not fulfilled, a more frequent use of the subgeneric rank, which does not imply name changes.     

Assessing the conservation status of the strict endemic Desertas wolf spider,Hogna ingens (Araneae,Lycosidae)

The Desertas Islands (Madeira, Portugal) are the sole home of one of the largest and rarest wolf spider species, Hogna ingens (Blackwall 1857) (Araneae, Lycosidae). Despite its size, it inhabits a single valley in the North of the Deserta Grande Island, Vale da Castanheira, currently invaded by the herb Phalaris aquatica. This invasive species competes with the native flora and was subject to several eradication experiments, namely through fire and chemicals. The objectives of this work were to: (1) estimate the current distribution and abundance of H. ingens and respective trends; (2) evaluate the impact of the invasive plant and eradication methods on the spider population; (3) suggest future measures for the recovery of the species; and (4) evaluate its conservation status according to the IUCN criteria.The current distribution of H. ingens covers 23 ha, a recent reduction from its original 83 ha, corresponding to the entire Vale da Castanheira. A total of 4447 and 4086 adults and 71,832 and 24,635 juveniles were estimated to live in the valley during 2011 and 2012, respectively. We found a significant negative impact of P. aquatica cover on the presence and abundance of H. ingens and that chemical treatment specifically directed towards the invasive plant species may be the only way to effectively recover the spider's habitat. We suggest (1) regular monitoring; (2) extend chemical treatments; (3) ex-situ conservation with future reintroduction of adults. Based on the current area of occupancy (AOO) of H. ingens and its recent decline in both AOO and number of individuals, it was recently classified as Critically Endangered by IUCN and we suggest its urgent inclusion in the Habitats Directive species lists.     

Energy metabolism and thermoregulation in pygmy lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus) from Yunnan Daweishan Nature Reserve

The pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) is a small prosimian living in Vietnam, Laos, eastern Cambodia and the south part of China. In China it is only found in Pingbian, Hekou, Jinping, Luchun of Yunnan. As N. pygmaeus is seriously threatened by hunting, trade and habitat destruction, it is listed in Appendix II of CITES, and in 2006 the IUCN classified it as “vulnerable”. In order to understand the characteristics of energy metabolism and thermoregulation of N. pygmaeus, the resting metabolic rate (RMR) and body temperature (T_b) at different ambient temperature (T_a) of pygmy lorises, as well as body mass, energy intake, digestable energy intake, digestability and the thermal conductance were measured in captivity. The results obtained mainly are as follows: (1) Pygmy loris feed dry food averaged 12.90 ± 1.02 g/d. They could gain 214.87 ± 16.65 kJ/d from food intake, and earned 200.15 ± 16.36 kJ digestable energy intake per day with 90.13 ± 1.34% of the digestability. (2) The T_b at room temperatures was a little low (35.23 ± 0.16 °C) and varied with T_a from 25 °C to 35 °C. There was a positive relationship between T_b and T_a, which was described as: T_b = 27.22 + 0.34T_a (r = 0.880). (3) The resting metabolic rate (RMR) of the pygmy loris was 0.3844 ± 0.0162 mlO₂/g/h, which was 51.91 ± 1.90% of the previous predicted rate by Kleiber (1961) [21]. (4) The average thermal conductance of the pygmy loris (N. pygmaeus) was 0.0449 ± 0.0031 mlO₂/g/h/°C. These characteristics of energy metabolism and thermoregulation of N. pygmaeus in Yunnan Daweishan Nature Reserve might be considered as the adaptive characteristics to their environment in tropical semi-evergreen forests and secondary forests.     

Warneckea parvifolia (Melastomataceae–Olisbeoideae), a new “sand-forest” endemic from northeastern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and southernmost Mozambique,and a phylogenetic analysis of eastern and southern African representatives of W. section Warneckea

Warneckea populations from “sand-forest” or “sand-thicket” habitats in Tembe Elephant Park, South Africa, and Licuati Forest Reserve in adjacent southern Mozambique were previously thought to be a small-leaved form of W. sousae, which typically includes larger-leaved plants ranging from central Mozambique northward to Tanzania. We examine this hypothesis using molecular and morphological evidence. Maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analysis of combined nrDNA ETS and ITS sequence data failed to resolve W. sousae and the Maputaland populations as an exclusively monophyletic group. Instead, the Kenyan endemic W. mouririifolia was strongly supported as the sister species of W. sousae, and the Maputaland plants were resolved in a separate, strongly supported clade together with populations of an as-yet undetermined Warneckea species from northern Mozambique. A hypothesis of exclusive monophyly for the plants from Tembe and Licuati had moderate support in separate ETS and ITS1 analyses (bootstrap proportions of 88% and 81%, respectively). Statistically significant differences in leaf dimensions and internode length were found between the Maputaland plants and typical W. sousae. We conclude that the populations from Tembe and Licuati represent a distinct species, which we describe as W. parvifolia. The species differs from W. sousae in having shorter internodes (mostly 5–25 mm not 10–60 mm long), smaller leaves (mostly 14–32 × 8–19 mm not 40–76 × 22–52 mm), shorter petioles (mostly 1–1.5 mm not 1.5–6 mm long), smaller flowers (hypanthium 1 × 1.5–1.75 mm not 1.5–2 × 2 mm; calyx lobes 0.5 mm not 0.75 mm long; staminal filaments 3–4 mm not 5 mm long; style 4–5 mm not 9 mm long), and globose fruit (not obovoid). An IUCN conservation status of Endangered (EN) B1a, b(ii, iii) is indicated for W. parvifolia, due to its limited distribution and projected declines in its habitat quality and area of occupancy.     

Vegetation mapping above tree line in Nandiar valley,western Himalayas. A multivariate approach

This paper communicates an analytical exploration of the vegetation above tree line in Nandiar valley western Himalayas with respect to climatic, edaphic and topographic factors. The alpine pasture stretches above the tree limits between elevations of 2850–3800 m. Thirteen stands were selected on the basis of physiognomy of vegetation in 2014–15. The leading life form and leaf spectra were therophytes and microphyll respectively. Four plant communities were identified through two ways indicator species analysis at cut level 2. Bray-Curtis ordination showed that maximum stands have common species. Detrended correspondence analysis grouped species having similar habitats in ordination space. Canonical correspondence analysis constrained species along different environmental variables. The significant result were contribution by phosphorous (P = 0.01) and wind speed (P = 0.08). Few plant species like Betula utilis and Podophyllum emodi are threatened due to its medicinal collection. The alpine pasture of Nandiar valley is under severe stress due to anthropogenic and grazing factors. Overall, this research article call for greater attention to the types of conservation actives occurring and the ways they are working together to protect and recover the global alpine biodiversity.     

Threat categorisation and conservation prioritisation of floristic diversity in the Indian Himalayan region: A state of art approach from Manali Wildlife Sanctuary

Strategies have been suggested by many conservationists to conserve biodiversity at regional, national and global levels. However, conservation strategies developed in the past were mostly based on qualitative attributes or one or two attributes. In the Himalayan region biodiversity varies from aspect to aspect, habitat to habitat and community to community therefore, location specific studies are required for its conservation and management. In the present study an approach has been developed to prioritise species at local level using six conservation attributes. Threat categorisation of the floristic diversity was undertaken based on Conservation Priority Index. Of the total 637 species of vascular plants recorded, 10 species were categorised as critically endangered; 15 species as endangered and 31 species as vulnerable. Two species as critically endangered, seven species as endangered and three species as vulnerable according to IUCN have been also recorded which indicated the importance of the sanctuary. Maximum threatened species were found in altitudinal zones 2000–2800 m and sites dominated by Betula utilis and Rhododendron campanulatum in forest and alpine zones, respectively. The two factors of over exploitation and habitat degradation have been identified as major threats to the floristic diversity. Therefore, monitoring of population and habitats, development of conventional protocol; establishment of species in-situ conditions and akin habitats and replication of this approach in other parts of Indian Himalayan Region have been suggested.     

Paracellular absorption in laboratory mice: Molecule size-dependent but low capacity

Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine via transcellular and paracellular processes. The capacity for paracellular absorption seems lower in nonfliers than in fliers, although that conclusion rests largely on a comparison of relatively larger nonflying mammals (> 155 g) and relatively smaller flying birds (< 155 g). We report on paracellular absorption in laboratory mice, the smallest nonflying mammal species studied to date. Using a standard pharmacokinetic technique, we measured the extent of absorption (fractional absorption = f) of inert carbohydrate probes: l-arabinose (M_r = 150.13 Da) and cellobiose (342.3) that are absorbed exclusively by the paracellular route, and 3-O-methyl d-glucose (3OMD-glucose) (M_r = 194) absorbed both paracellularly and transcellularly. f was measured accurately in urine collection trials of 5–10 h duration. Absorption of 3OMD-glucose by mice was essentially complete (f = 0.95 ± 0.07) and much higher than that for l-arabinose (f = 0.21 ± 0.02), indicating that in mice, like other nonflying mammals, > 80% of glucose is absorbed by mediated process(es) rather than the passive, paracellular route. As in all other vertebrates, absorption of cellobiose (f = 0.13 ± 0.02) was even lower than that for l-arabinose, suggesting an equivalent molecular size cut-off for flying and nonflying animals and thus a comparable effective TJ aperture. An important ecological implication is that smaller water-soluble plant secondary metabolites that have been shown to be absorbed by the paracellular path in cell culture, such as phenolics and alkaloids, might be absorbed in substantial amounts by bats and small birds relative to nonflying mammals such as mice.     

The desolation of Smaug: The human-driven decline of the Sungazer lizard (Smaug giganteus)

The Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) is a threatened lizard species endemic to the Highveld grasslands of South Africa. The species faces risks from habitat loss and fragmentation, and illegal harvesting for traditional medicine and the pet trade. Despite these threats, the current conservation status of the species was poorly validated. We visited 79 Sungazer populations recorded in 1978 to assess population change since the initial surveys, and surveyed an additional 164 sites to better define the distribution and estimate the current population size. We interrogated all known historical trade data of the species. One-third of Sungazer populations have been extirpated over the past 37 years. The distribution includes two allopatric populations, with the smaller Mpumalanga population experiencing a significantly higher decline. The species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 34 500 km², and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 1149 km². The interpreted distribution is 17 978 km², and just under 60% remains untransformed grassland. We estimate a population size of 677 000 mature individuals, down 48% from the estimated historical population, prior to commercial agricultural development. A total of 1194 live Sungazers were exported under permit from South Africa between 1985 and 2014, with a significant increase in numbers exported over the last decade. Without any evidence of captive breeding, we believe that these animals are all wild-caught. Based on the AOO, level of decline, fragmentation within the distribution and suspected level of exploitation, we recommend classification of the species as Vulnerable under IUCN Red List Criteria A2acd and B2ab(ii–v). The establishment of a protected area network, genetic research and further investigations into the pet and traditional medicine trades are urgently needed.     

Relative growth rate,biomass partitioning and nutrient allocation in seedlings of two threatened trees grown under different light conditions

The present study investigates the variation in the relative growth, biomass and nutrient allocation in two threatened tree species viz. Magnolia punduana Hook.f. & Th. and Elaeocarpus prunifolius Wall. ex Müll. Berol. grown under three different levels of irradiance. The irradiance ranged between 1 and 12 mol m^?2 d^?1. Results showed that the highest relative growth rate (RGR) was achieved under the intermediate light treatment for both the species (mean: 0.005 mg mg^?1 d^?1). The growth response coefficient (GRC) model revealed that net assimilation rate (NAR) was the factor driving the RGR in both species. A significant positive correlation was found between NAR and RGR (R² = 0.33, p = 0.000) whereas specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf mass fraction (LMF) was negatively correlated to RGR. Overall, multiple regression of the studied species based on the independent variables viz. NAR, SLA, and LMF showed a significant relation with RGR (F(3,50,53 = 13.001, p = 0.000, R² = 0.43). The biomass distribution in the studied species is in agreement with the “balanced-growth hypothesis” where high irradiance increased allocation to below ground biomass fraction and decreased irradiance increased allocation to the above ground fraction. The highest nitrogen concentration in leaves was observed under the intermediate light treatment. Overall seedlings growth under intermediate light had a higher mean RGR indicating the species' preference for partial light conditions. Long-term experiments under varied light conditions as in the present study would provide useful insight into plant growth strategies in varied environmental conditions.     

Growth of eight Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) species: Effects of temperature,salinity and irradiance

Little is known about how the growth of individual Gambierdiscus species responds to environmental factors. This study examined the effects of temperature (15–34 °C), salinity (15–41) and irradiance (2–664 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹) on growth of Gambierdiscus: G. australes, G. belizeanus, G. caribaeus, G. carolinianus, G. carpenteri, G. pacificus and G. ruetzleri and one putative new species, Gambierdiscus ribotype 2. Depending on species, temperatures where maximum growth occurred varied between 26.5 and 31.1 °C. The upper and lower thermal limits for all species were between 31–34 °C and 15–21 °C, respectively. The shapes of the temperature vs. growth curves indicated that even small differences of 1–2 °C notably affected growth potentials. Salinities where maximum growth occurred varied between 24.7 and 35, while the lowest salinities supporting growth ranged from <14 to 20.9. These data indicated that Gambierdiscus species are more tolerant of lower salinities than is generally appreciated. Growth of all species began to decline markedly as salinities exceed 35.1–39.4. The highest salinity tested in this study (41), however, was lethal to only one species, Gambierdiscus ribotype 2. The combined salinity data indicated that differences in salinity regimes may affect relative species abundances and distributions, particularly when salinities are <20 and >35. All eight Gambierdiscus species were adapted to relatively low light conditions, exhibiting growth maxima at 50–230 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹ and requiring only 6–17 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹ to maintain growth. These low light requirements indicate that Gambierdiscus growth can occur up to 150 m depth in tropical waters, with optimal light regimes often extending to 75 m. The combined temperature, salinity and light requirements of Gambierdiscus can be used to define latitudinal ranges and species-specific habitats, as well as to inform predictive models.     

Trapping of Saker Falcon Falco cherrug and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus in Saudi Arabia: Implications for biodiversity conservation

The numbers of Falco cherrug and Falco peregrinus trapped during their migration over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) were investigated from published reports and through interviews with well-known trappers and dealers over several years (1989–2013). The number of trapped individuals increased for both species over a 23 year period, which is probably related to an enhanced trapping effort. Time series analysis suggests that the number of Saker Falcons being trapped is likely to be stable with annual fluctuations in the coming ten-year period, whereas the number of trapped Peregrine Falcons will probably decline with a small fluctuation initially. Using the population viability analysis suggests a high extinction rate for the Saker Falcon population migrating through KSA during the coming 10 and 20 years; whereas Peregrine Falcons probably take more than 100 years to reach the extinction threshold. However, the increase in the trapping period, especially in the spring, that has been observed during the last five years could increase the number of falcons trapped in the future. As both falcon species are migratory, implementing conservation actions across all range states is important to ensure a favourable conservation status for the Saker and Peregrine Falcons. Both species will benefit through the implementation of the Global Action Plan (GAP), developed by the Saker Falcon Task Force.