Temporal Dynamics in Soil Oxygen and Greenhouse Gases in Two Humid Tropical Forests

Soil redox plays a key role in regulating biogeochemical transformations in terrestrial ecosystems, but the temporal and spatial patterns in redox and associated controls within and across ecosystems are poorly understood. Upland humid tropical forest soils may be particularly prone to fluctuating redox as abundant rainfall limits oxygen (O₂) diffusion through finely textured soils and high biological activity enhances O₂ consumption. We used soil equilibration chambers equipped with automated sensors to determine the temporal variability in soil oxygen concentrations in two humid tropical forests with different climate regimes. We also measured soil trace gases (CO₂, N₂O, and CH₄) as indices of redox-sensitive biogeochemistry. On average, the upper elevation cloud forest had significantly lower O₂ concentrations (3.0 ± 0.8%) compared to the lower elevation wet tropical forest (7.9 ± 1.1%). Soil O₂ was dynamic, especially in the wet tropical forest, where concentrations changed as much as 10% in a single day. The periodicity in the O₂ time series at this site was strongest at 16 day intervals and was associated with the hourly precipitation. Greenhouse gas concentrations differed significantly between sites, but the relationships with soil O₂ were consistent: O₂ was negatively related to both CO₂ and CH₄ and positively related to N₂O. These results are among the first to quantify the temporal and spatial scale of variability in soil redox in humid tropical forests, and show that the timing of precipitation plays a strong role in biogeochemical cycling on the scale of hours to weeks.     

Environmental variables controlling soil respiration on diurnal, seasonal and annual time-scales in a mixed mountain forest in Switzerland

Studies on soil respiration in mountain forests are rather scarce compared to their broad distribution. Therefore, we investigated daily, seasonal and annual soil respiration rates in a mixed forest (Lägeren), located at about 700 m in the Swiss Jura mountains, during 2 years (2006 and 2007). Soil respiration (SR) was measured continuously with high temporal resolution (half-hourly) at one single point (SR_automated) and periodically with high spatial resolution (SR_manual) at 16 plots within the study site. Both, SR_automated and SR_manual showed a similar seasonal cycle. SR strongly depended on soil temperature in 2007 (R ² = 0.82–0.92), but less so in 2006 (R ² = 0.56–0.76) when SR was water limited during a summer drought. Including soil moisture improved the fit of the 2006 model significantly (R ² = 0.78–0.97). Total annual SR for the study site was estimated as 869 g C m^?2 year^?1 for 2006 and as 907 g C m^?2 year^?1 for 2007 (uncertainty <10% at the 95% confidence interval, determined by bootstrapping). Selected environmental conditions were assessed in more detail: (1) Rapid, but contrasting changes of SR were found after summer rainfall. Depending on soil moisture at pre-rain conditions, summer rain could either cause a pulse of CO₂ from the soil or an abrupt decrease of SR_automated due to water logging of soil pores. (2) Two contrasting winter seasons resulted in SR being about 60–70% (31.2–44.6 g C m^?2) higher during a mild winter (2007) compared to a harsh winter (2006). (3) Analysing SR for selected periods on a diurnal scale revealed a counter-clockwise hysteresis with soil surface temperatures. This indication of a time-lagged response of SR to temperature was further supported by a very strong relationship (R ² = 0.86–0.90) of SR to soil temperature with a time-lag of 2–4 h.     

Physical and biological controls on trace gas fluxes in semi-arid urban ephemeral waterways

Rapid increases in human population and land transformation in arid and semi-arid regions are altering water, carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles, yet little is known about how urban ephemeral stream channels in these regions affect biogeochemistry and trace gas fluxes. To address these knowledge gaps, we measured carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and methane (CH₄) before and after soil wetting in 16 ephemeral stream channels that vary in soil texture and organic matter in Tucson, AZ. Fluxes of CO₂ and N₂O immediately following wetting were among the highest ever published (up to 1,588 mg C m^?2 h^?1 and 3,121 μg N m^?2 h^?1). Mean post-wetting CO₂ and N₂O fluxes were significantly higher in the loam and sandy loam channels (286 and 194 mg C m^?2 h^?1; 168 and 187 μg N m^?2 h^?1) than in the sand channels (45 mg C m^?2 h^?1 and 7 μg N m^?2 h^?1). Factor analyses show that the effect of soil moisture, soil C and soil N on trace gas fluxes varied with soil texture. In the coarser sandy sites, trace gas fluxes were primarily controlled by soil moisture via physical displacement of soil gases and by organic soil C and N limitations on biotic processes. In the finer sandy loam sites trace gas fluxes and N-processing were primarily limited by soil moisture, soil organic C and soil N resources. In the loam sites, finer soil texture and higher soil organic C and N enhance soil moisture retention allowing for more biologically favorable antecedent conditions. Variable redox states appeared to develop in the finer textured soils resulting in wide ranging trace gas flux rates following wetting. These findings indicate that urban ephemeral channels are biogeochemical hotspots that can have a profound impact on urban C and N biogeochemical cycling pathways and subsequently alter the quality of localized water resources.     

Soil‐surface CO2 efflux and its spatial and temporal variations in a young ponderosa pine plantation in northern California

Soil‐surface CO₂ efflux and its spatial and temporal variations were examined in an 8‐y‐old ponderosa pine plantation in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California from June 1998 to August 1999. Continuous measurements of soil CO₂ efflux, soil temperatures and moisture were conducted on two 20 × 20 m sampling plots. Microbial biomass, fine root biomass, and the physical and chemical properties of the soil were also measured at each of the 18 sampling locations on the plots. It was found that the mean soil CO₂ efflux in the plantation was 4.43 µmol m^?2 s^?1 in the growing season and 3.12 µmol m^?2 s^?1 in the nongrowing season. These values are in the upper part of the range of published soil‐surface CO₂ efflux data. The annual maximum and minimum CO₂ efflux were 5.87 and 1.67 µmol m^?2 s^?1, respectively, with the maximum occurring between the end of May and early June and the minimum in December. The diurnal fluctuation of CO₂ efflux was relatively small (< 20%) with the minimum appearing around 09.00 hours and the maximum around 14.00 hours. Using daytime measurements of soil CO₂ efflux tends to overestimate the daily mean soil CO₂ efflux by 4–6%. The measurements taken between 09.00 and 11.00 hours (local time) seem to better represent the daily mean with a reduced sampling error of 0.9–1.5%. The spatial variation of soil CO₂ efflux among the 18 sampling points was high, with a coefficient of variation of approximately 30%. Most (84%) of the spatial variation was explained by fine root biomass, microbial biomass, and soil physical and chemical properties. Although soil temperature and moisture explained most of the temporal variations (76–95%) of soil CO₂ efflux, the two variables together explained less than 34% of the spatial variation. Microbial biomass, fine root biomass, soil nitrogen content, organic matter content, and magnesium content were significantly and positively correlated with soil CO₂ efflux, whereas bulk density and pH value were negatively correlated with CO₂ efflux. The relationship between soil CO₂ efflux and soil temperature was significantly controlled by soil moisture with a Q₁₀ value of 1.4 when soil moisture was <14% and 1.8 when soil moisture was >14%. Understanding the spatial and temporal variations is essential to accurately assessment of carbon budget at whole ecosystem and landscape scales. Thus, this study bears important implications for the study of large‐scale ecosystem dynamics, particularly in response to climatic variations and management regimes.     

Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dynamics of a No-Till,Corn-Based Cellulosic Ethanol Production System

Crop residues like corn (Zea mays L.) stover perform important functions that promote soil health and provide ecosystem services that influence agricultural sustainability and global biogeochemical cycles. We evaluated the effect of corn stover removal from a no-till, corn-soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr) rotation on soil greenhouse gas (GHG; CO₂, N₂O, CH₄) fluxes, crop yields, and soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics. We conducted a 4-year study using replicated field plots managed with two levels of corn stover removal (none; 55 % stover removal) for four complete crop cycles prior to initiation of ground surface gas flux measurements. Corn and soybean yields were not affected by stover removal with yields averaging 7.28 Mg ha^?1 for corn and 2.64 Mg ha^?1 for soybean. Corn stover removal treatment did not affect soil GHG fluxes from the corn phase; however, the treatment did significantly increase (107 %, P?=?0.037) N₂O fluxes during the soybean phase. The plots were a net source of CH₄ (～0.5 kg CH₄-C ha^?1 year^?1 average of all treatments and crops) during the generally wet study duration. Soil organic carbon stocks increased in both treatments during the 4-year study (initiated following 8 years of stover removal), with significantly higher SOC accumulation in the control plots compared to plots with corn stover removal (0–15 cm, P?=?0.048). Non-CO₂ greenhouse gas emissions (945 kg CO₂-eq ha^?1 year^?1) were roughly half of SOC (0–30 cm) gains with corn stover removal (1.841 Mg CO₂-eq ha^?1 year^?1) indicating that no-till practices greatly improve the viability of biennial corn stover harvesting under local soil-climatic conditions. Our results also show that repeated corn stover harvesting may increase N loss (as N₂O) from fields and thereby contribute to GHG production and loss of potential plant nutrients.     

Greenhouse gas fluxes from Atacama Desert soils: a test of biogeochemical potential at the Earth’s arid extreme

Most terrestrial ecosystems support a similar suite of biogeochemical processes largely dependent on the availability of water and labile carbon (C). Here, we explored the biogeochemical potential of soils from Earth’s driest ecosystem, the Atacama Desert, characterized by extremely low moisture and organic C. We sampled surface soil horizons from sites ranging from the Atacama’s hyper-arid core to less-arid locations at higher elevation that supported sparse vegetation. We performed laboratory incubations and measured fluxes of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and methane (CH₄) as indices of potential biogeochemical activity across this gradient. We were able to stimulate trace gas production at all sites, and treatment responses often suggested the influence of microbial processes. Sites with extant vegetation had higher C concentrations (0.13–0.68%) and produced more CO₂ under oxic than sub-oxic conditions, suggesting the presence of aerobic microbial decomposers. In contrast, abiotic CO₂ production appeared to predominate in the most arid and C-poor (<0.08% C) sites without plants, with one notable exception. Soils were either a weak source or sink of CH₄ under oxic conditions, whereas anoxia stimulated CH₄ production across all sites. Several sites were rich in nitrate, and we stimulated N₂O fluxes in all soils by headspace manipulation or dissolved organic matter addition. Peak N₂O fluxes in the most C-poor soil (0.02% C) were very high, exceeding 3 ng nitrogen g^?1 h^?1 under anoxic conditions. These results provide evidence of resilience of at least some soil biogeochemical capacity to long-term water and C deprivation in the world’s driest ecosystem. Atacama soils appear capable of responding biogeochemically to moisture inputs, and could conceivably constitute a regionally-important source of N₂O under altered rainfall regimes, analogous to other temperate deserts.     

Linking the patterns in soil moisture to leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, growth, and mortality of dominant shrubs in the Florida scrub ecosystem

Patterns in soil moisture availability affect plant survival, growth and fecundity. Here we link patterns in soil moisture to physiological and demographic consequences in Florida scrub plants. We use data on different temporal scales to (1) determine critical soil moisture content that leads to loss of turgor in leaves during predawn measurements of leaf water status (Ψ _crit), (2) describe the temporal patterns in the distribution of Ψ _crit, (3) analyze the strength of relationship between rainfall and soil moisture content based on 8 years of data, (4) predict soil moisture content for 75 years of rainfall data, and (5) evaluate morphological, physiological and demographic consequences of spring 2006 drought on dominant shrubs in Florida scrub ecosystem in the light of water-uptake depth as determined by stable isotope analysis (δ¹⁸O). Based on 1998–2006 data, the soil moisture content at 50 cm depth explained significant variation in predawn leaf water potential of two dominant shrubs, Quercus chapmanii and Ceratiola ericoides (r ²?=?0.69). During 8 years of data collection, leaves attained Ψ _crit only during the peak drought of 2000 when the soil moisture fell below 1% by volume at 50 and 90 cm depth. Precipitation explained a significant variation in soil moisture content (r ²?=?0.62). The patterns in predicted soil moisture for 75 year period, suggested that the frequency of drought occurrence has not increased in time. In spring 2006, the soil reached critical soil moisture levels, with consequences for plant growth and physiological responses. Overall, 24% of plants showed no drought-induced damage, 51% showed damage up to 50%, 21% had intense leaf shedding and 2% of all plants died. Over the drought and recovery period (May–October 2006), relative height growth was significantly lower in plants with greater die-back. All species showed a significant depression in stomatal conductance, while all but deep-rooted palms Sabal etonia and Serenoa repens showed significantly lower predawn (Ψ _pd) and mid-day (Ψ _md) leaf water potential in dry compared to wet season. Plants experiencing less severe die-back exhibited greater stomatal conductance, suggesting a strong relationship between physiology and morphology. Based on results we suggest that the restoration efforts in Florida scrub should consider the soil moisture requirements of key species.     

Wildfire Effects on Soil Gross Nitrogen Transformation Rates in Coniferous Forests of Central Idaho, USA

Forest fires often result in a series of biogeochemical processes that increase soil nitrate (NO₃ ^?) concentrations for several years; however, the dynamic nature of inorganic nitrogen (N) cycling in the plant–microbe–soil complex makes it challenging to determine the direct causes of increased soil NO₃ ^?. We measured gross inorganic N transformation rates in mineral soils 2 years after wildfires in three central Idaho coniferous forests to determine the causes of the elevated soil NO₃ ^?. We also measured key factors that could affect the soil N processes, including temperature during soil incubation in situ, soil water content, pH and carbon (C) availability. We found no significant differences (P = 0.461) in gross nitrification rates between burned and control soils. However, microbial NO₃ ^? uptake rates were significantly lower (P = 0.078) in burned than control soils. The reduced consumption of NO₃ ^? caused slightly elevated NO₃ ^? concentrations in the burned soils. C availability was positively correlated with microbial NO₃ ^? uptake rates. Despite reduced microbial NO₃ ^? uptake capacity in the burned soils, soil microbes were a strong enough N sink to maintain low soil NO₃ ^? concentrations 2 years post fire. Soil NH₄ ⁺ concentrations between the treatments were not significantly different (P = 0.673). However, gross NH₄ ⁺ production and microbial uptake rates in burned soils were significantly lower (P = 0.028 and 0.035, respectively) than in the controls, and these rates were positively correlated with C availability. Our results imply that C availability is an important factor regulating soil N cycling of coniferous forests in the region.     

Nitrous oxide fluxes over establishing biofuel crops: Characterization of temporal variability using the cross‐wavelet analysis

Emissions of nitrous oxide (N₂O) over croplands are a major source of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The precise accounting of sources of N₂O is essential to national and global budgets, as well as the understanding of the spatial and temporal relationships with environmental variables such as rainfall, air and soil temperature, and soil moisture. The objective of this work was to investigate the temporal correlations of N₂O fluxes with soil and air temperatures, as well as soil moisture. N₂O fluxes were measured over four biofuel crops in Central Illinois during their establishment phase. Measurements were carried out from 2009 to 2011 using a trace gas analyzer (TGA) with tunable laser technology. Measurements of concentrations of N₂O and CO₂ were taken at the center of four plots of maize/soybean rotation, miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and a mixture of native prairie plants. Cumulative fluxes indicate an average emission of nitrogen via N₂O fluxes on the order of 1.5 kg N ha^?1 year^?1, in agreement with chamber measurements previously reported for the site. N₂O fluxes were associated with peaks in soil and air temperature, and soil moisture, particularly during spring and winter thaws. Cross‐wavelet analysis was used to investigate the correlation between N₂O fluxes and those variables. Results indicate that N₂O fluxes and meteorological variables have significant covariance in time scales ranging from 4 to 32 days. In addition, temporal delays of 1–8 days were found in those relationships. Cross‐wavelet patterns were similar when relating N₂O fluxes with soil temperature, air temperature and soil moisture. The temporal patterns of fluxes and environmental variables reported here support the modeling of emissions and highlight the importance of considering the timing of fluxes in relation to trends in meteorological variables.     

Interactive Effects of N Deposition, Land Management and Weather Patterns on Soil Solution Chemistry in a Scottish Alpine Heath

Nitrogen (N) deposition and land management practices can have profound impacts on the structure and functioning of alpine ecosystems occupying headwaters of major river systems. Such impacts have the potential to result in loss of N to surface waters and acidification, both of which could have serious consequences for water quality and downstream habitats. We present results from a 6-year study of Calluna-dominated alpine heathland in Scotland, designed to assess the interactive effects of N addition (0 and 50 kg N ha^?1 y^?l), simulated accidental fire and grazing on soil solution chemistry. Both N addition and to a lesser extent burning had significant effects on soil solution chemistry, whereas grazing had no significant impact. Soil solution nitrate (NO₃ ^?) and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) concentration showed a rapid response to N addition and N addition also resulted in acidification of soil solution. A ‘flush’ of base cations, which normally buffer soil from the acid effects of deposited N, accompanied the excess N released from the soil to soil solution. The N treatment had no effect on dissolved organic carbon (DOC), however, concentrations were significantly (14%) lower at the burned plots. In addition to treatment effects, temporal analysis of data from control plots demonstrated that soil solution chemistry was influenced by extremes in weather conditions. Peak NO₃ ^? concentrations were observed in soil solution following the cold winter of 2000–2001 when there were frequent freeze/thaw events. A large pulse of base cations was lost from the soil following the dry year of 2003. These weather-induced responses potentially exacerbate the treatment effects observed in this study.     

The relative contributions of biological and abiotic processes to carbon dynamics in subarctic sea ice

Knowledge on the relative effects of biological activity and precipitation/dissolution of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in influencing the air-ice CO₂ exchange in sea-ice-covered season is currently lacking. Furthermore, the spatial and temporal occurrence of CaCO₃ and other biogeochemical parameters in sea ice are still not well described. Here we investigated autotrophic and heterotrophic activity as well as the precipitation/dissolution of CaCO₃ in subarctic sea ice in South West Greenland. Integrated over the entire ice season (71 days), the sea ice was net autotrophic with a net carbon fixation of 56 mg C m^?2, derived from a sea-ice-related gross primary production of 153 mg C m^?2 and a bacterial carbon demand of 97 mg C m^?2. Primary production contributed only marginally to the TCO₂ depletion of the sea ice (7–25 %), which was mainly controlled by physical export by brine drainage and CaCO₃ precipitation. The net biological production could only explain 4 % of this sea-ice-driven CO₂ uptake. Abiotic processes contributed to an air-sea CO₂ uptake of 1.5 mmol m^?2 sea ice day^?1, and dissolution of CaCO₃ increased the air-sea CO₂ uptake by 36 % compared to a theoretical estimate of melting CaCO₃-free sea ice. There was a considerable spatial and temporal variability of CaCO₃ and the other biogeochemical parameters measured (dissolved organic and inorganic nutrients).     

Confounding Effects of Soil Moisture on the Relationship Between Ecosystem Respiration and Soil Temperature in Switchgrass

Understanding the response of ecosystem respiration (ER) to major environmental drivers is critical for estimating carbon sequestration and large-scale modeling research. Temperature effect on ER is modified by other environmental factors, mainly soil moisture, and such information is lacking for switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) ecosystems. The objective of this study was to examine seasonal variation in ER and its relationship with soil temperature (T _s) and moisture in a switchgrass field. ER from the nighttime net ecosystem CO₂ exchange measurements by eddy covariance system during the 2011 and 2012 growing seasons was analyzed. Nighttime ER ranged from about 2 (early growing season) to as high as 13 μmol m^?2 s^?1 (peak growing period) and showed a clear seasonality, with low rates during warm (>30 °C) and dry periods (<0.20 m³ m^?3 of soil water content). No single temperature or moisture function described variability in ER on the seasonal scale. However, an exponential temperature–respiration function explained over 50 % of seasonal variation in ER at adequate soil moisture (>0.20 m³ m^?3), indicating that soil moisture <0.20 m³ m^?3 started to limit ER. Due to the limitation of soil–atmosphere gas exchange, ER rates declined markedly in wet soil conditions (>0.35 m³ m^?3) as well. Consequently, both dry and wet conditions lowered temperature sensitivity of respiration (Q ₁₀). Stronger ER–T _s relationships were observed at higher soil moisture levels. These results demonstrate that soil moisture greatly influences the dynamics of ER and its relationship with T _s in drought prone switchgrass ecosystems.     

Biological soil crusts influence carbon release responses following rainfall in a temperate desert,northern China

How soil cover types and rainfall patterns influence carbon (C) release in temperate desert ecosystems has largely been unexplored. We removed intact crusts down to 10 cm from the Shapotou region, China, and measured them in PVC mesocosms, immediately after rainfall. C release rates were measured in soils with four cover types (moss-crusted soil, algae-crusted soil, mixed (composed of moss, algae, and lichen)-crusted soil, and mobile dune sand). We investigated seven different rainfall magnitudes (0–1, 1–2, 2–5, 5–10, 10–15, 15–20, and >20 mm) under natural conditions. C release from all four BSCs increased with increasing rainfall amount. With a rainfall increase from 0 to 45 mm, carbon release amounts increased from 0.13 ± 0.09 to 15.2 ± 1.35 gC m^?2 in moss-crusted soil, 0.08 ± 0.06 to 6.43 ± 1.23 gC m^?2 in algae-crusted soil, 0.11 ± 0.08 to 8.01 ± 0.51 gC m^?2 in mixed-crusted soil, and 0.06 ± 0.04 to 8.47 ± 0.51 gC m^?2 in mobile dune sand, respectively. Immediately following heavy rainfall events (44.9 mm), moss-crusted soils showed significantly higher carbon release rates than algae- and mixed-crusted soils and mobile dune sands, which were 0.95 ± 0.02, 0.30 ± 0.03, 0.13 ± 0.04, and 0.51 ± 0.02 μmol CO₂ m^?2 s^?1, respectively. Changes in rainfall patterns, especially large rain pulses (>10 mm) affect the contributions of different soil cover types to carbon release amounts; moss-crusted soils sustain higher respiration rates than other biological crusts after short-term extreme rainfall events.     

Integrated effects of organic,inorganic and biological amendments on methane emission,soil quality and rice productivity in irrigated paddy ecosystem of Bangladesh: field study of two consecutive rice growing seasons

Aims

Effects of different soil amendments were investigated on methane (CH₄) emission, soil quality parameters and rice productivity in irrigated paddy field of Bangladesh.

Methods

The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with five treatments and three replications. The experimental treatments were urea (220 kg ha^?1) + rice straw compost (2 t ha^?1) as a control, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + rice straw compost (2 t ha^?1) + silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + sesbania biomass (2 t ha^?1 ) + silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + azolla biomass (2 t ha^?1) + cyanobacterial mixture 15 kg ha^?1 silicate fertilizer, urea (170 kg ha^?1) + cattle manure compost (2 t ha^?1) + silicate fertilizer.

Results

The average of two growing seasons CH₄ flux 132 kg ha^?1 was recorded from the conventional urea (220 kg ha^?1) with rice straw compost incorporated field plot followed by 126.7 (4 % reduction), 130.7 (1.5 % reduction), 116 (12 % reduction) and 126 (5 % reduction) kg CH₄ flux ha^?1 respectively, with rice straw compost, sesbania biomass, azolla anabaena and cattle manure compost in combination urea and silicate fertilizer applied plots. Rice grain yield was increased by 15 % and 10 % over the control (4.95 Mg ha^?1) with silicate plus composted cattle manure and silicate plus azolla anabaena, respectively. Soil quality parameters such as soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, soil redox status and cations exchange capacity were improved with the added organic materials and azolla biofertilizer amendments with silicate slag and optimum urea application (170 kg ha^?1) in paddy field.

Conclusion

Integrated application of silicate fertilizer, well composted organic manures and azolla biofertilizer could be an effective strategy to minimize the use of conventional urea fertilizer, reducing CH₄ emissions, improving soil quality parameters and increasing rice productivity in subtropical countries like Bangladesh.     

Do storm synoptic patterns affect biogeochemical fluxes from temperate deciduous forest canopies?

The volumetric quantity and biogeochemical quality of throughfall and stemflow in forested ecosystems are influenced by biological characteristics as well environmental and storm meteorological conditions. Previous attempts at connecting forest water and nutrient cycles to storm characteristics have focused on individual meteorological variables, but we propose a unified approach by examining the storm system in its entirety. In this study, we use methods from synoptic climatology to distinguish sub-canopy biogeochemical fluxes between storm events to understand the response of forest ecosystems to daily weather patterns. For solute inputs tied to atmospheric deposition (NH₄ ⁺, NO₃ ^?, SO₄ ^2?, Na⁺, Cl^?), stagnant air masses resulted in high inputs in rainfall (273.42, 81.81, 52.30, 156.99, 128.70 μmol L^?1), throughfall (355.05, 130.66, 83.24, 239.55, 261.32 μmol L^?1), and stemflow (338.34, 182.75, 153.74, 125.75, 272.88 μmol L^?1). For inputs tied to canopy exchange (DOC, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺), a clear distinction was observed between throughfall and stemflow pathways. The largest throughfall concentrations were in the Great Lakes Low (1794.80, 352.96, 72.75, 74.37 μmol L^?1) while the largest stemflow concentrations were in the Weak Upper Trough (3681.78, 497.34, 82.36, 72.46 μmol L^?1). Stemflow leaching is likely derived from a larger reservoir of leachable cations in the tree canopy than throughfall, with stemflow fluxes maximized during synoptic types with greater rainfall amounts and throughfall fluxes diluted. For flux-based enrichment ratios, water volume, storm magnitude, antecedent dry period, and seasonality were important factors, further illustrating the influence of synoptic characteristics on wash-off, leaching and, ultimately, dilution processes within the canopy.     

Do changes in flood pulse duration disturb soil carbon dioxide emissions in semi-arid floodplains?

In semi-arid floodplains the average times between floods have been cited to drive metabolic and biogeochemical responses during the subsequent flooding pulse. However, the interaction effects of flood pulse duration and the length of time between floods on the carbon budget are not well understood. Using field experiments, flood pulses—dry cycles were simulated (SF plots—short flood/dry cycles: 15 flood days + 7 dry + 15 flood and LF plots—long flood/dry cycles: 21 flood + 14 dry + 21 flood) in a semi-arid floodplain in Central Spain, in order to study the effects on soil CO₂ emissions. Differences on soil water content among SF, LF and control plots were statistically significant throughout the experiment (p < 0.01). Soil CO₂ emission rates during drying time were significantly related with the duration of previous flooding and inter-flooding intervals (R ² = 0.52–0.64, p = 0.03). During the first stage of desiccation, the high soil water content appears to limit aerobic metabolism. Soil respiration rates similar to those of control plots measurements occurred 1–2 weeks later. Then, soil respiration increased to a maximum rate which was delayed 5–8 weeks, as high soil water content limited microbial activity. While more than 7 days of inundation promoted denitrification, organic nutrients supplied by flood water increased 1% soil respiration during drying. Differences between SF and LF plots in soil CO₂ emissions only appeared after floodplain soil had been subjected to two consecutive flood-dry cycles; 70 days after the second inundation ended, CO₂ fluxes achieved similar values in all treatments. Daily soil CO₂ emission rates during the entire study period (117 days) were comparable, independently of the flood duration and the time between floods (75.76 ± 1.59 and 77.94 ± 0.45 mmol CO₂ m^?2 day^?1, in SF and LF, respectively). Flood disturbance affects site-specific microbial processes, but only during very short time periods. The mechanism by which soil microbial communities cope or adapt to new conditions needs to be reassessed in future research in order to determine the long-term effects of hydrological changes in the soil carbon balance of semi-arid floodplains.     

Soil CO2 efflux in a tropical forest in the central Amazon

This study investigated the spatial and temporal variation in soil carbon dioxide (CO₂) efflux and its relationship with soil temperature, soil moisture and rainfall in a forest near Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. The mean rate of efflux was 6.45±0.25 SE μmol CO₂ m^?2s^?1 at 25.6±0.22 SE°C (5 cm depth) ranging from 4.35 to 9.76 μmol CO₂ m^?2s^?1; diel changes in efflux were correlated with soil temperature (r²=0.60). However, the efflux response to the diel cycle in temperature was not always a clear exponential function. During period of low soil water content, temperature in deeper layers had a better relationship with CO₂ efflux than with the temperature nearer the soil surface. Soil water content may limit CO₂ production during the drying‐down period that appeared to be an important factor controlling the efflux rate (r²=0.39). On the other hand, during the rewetting period microbial activity may be the main controlling factor, which may quickly induce very high rates of efflux. The CO₂ flux chamber was adapted to mimic the effects of rainfall on soil CO₂ efflux and the results showed that efflux rates reduced 30% immediately after a rainfall event. Measurements of the CO₂ concentration gradient in the soil profile showed a buildup in the concentration of CO₂ after rain on the top soil. This higher CO₂ concentration developed shortly after rainfall when the soil pores in the upper layers were filled with water, which created a barrier for gas exchange between the soil and the atmosphere.     

Microbial and Environmental Controls of Methane Fluxes Along a Soil Moisture Gradient in a Pacific Coastal Temperate Rainforest

Most studies of greenhouse gas fluxes from forest soils in the coastal rainforest have considered carbon dioxide (CO₂), whereas methane (CH₄) has not received the same attention. Soil hydrology is a key driver of CH₄ dynamics in ecosystems, but the impact on the function and distribution of the underlying microbial communities involved in CH₄ cycling and the resultant net CH₄ exchange is not well understood at this scale. We studied the growing season variations of in situ CH₄ fluxes, microbial gene abundances of methanotrophs (CH₄ oxidizers) and methanogens (CH₄ producers), soil hydrology, and nutrient availability in three typical forest types across a soil moisture gradient. CH₄ displayed a spatial variability changing from a net uptake in the upland soils (3.9–46 µmol CH₄ m^?2 h^?1) to a net emission in the wetter soils (0–90 μmol CH₄ m^?2 h^?1). Seasonal variations of CH₄ fluxes were related to soil hydrology in both upland and wet soils. Thus, in the upland soils, uptake rates increased with the decreasing soil moisture, whereas CH₄ emission was inversely related to the water table depth in the wet soils. Spatial variability of CH₄ exchange was related to the abundance of genes involved in CH₄ oxidation and production, but there was no indication of a temporal link between microbial groups and CH₄ exchange. Our data show that the abundances of genes involved in CH₄ oxidation and production are strongly influenced by soil moisture and each other and grouped by the upland–wetland classification but not forest type.     

Effect of biochar amendment on the soil-atmosphere exchange of greenhouse gases from an intensive subtropical pasture in northern New South Wales, Australia

We assessed the effect of biochar incorporation into the soil on the soil-atmosphere exchange of the greenhouse gases (GHG) from an intensive subtropical pasture. For this, we measured N₂O, CH₄ and CO₂ emissions with high temporal resolution from April to June 2009 in an existing factorial experiment where cattle feedlot biochar had been applied at 10 t ha^?1 in November 2006. Over the whole measurement period, significant emissions of N₂O and CO₂ were observed, whereas a net uptake of CH₄ was measured. N₂O emissions were found to be highly episodic with one major emission pulse (up to 502 ??g N₂O-N m^?2 h^?1) following heavy rainfall. There was no significant difference in the net flux of GHGs from the biochar amended vs. the control plots. Our results demonstrate that intensively managed subtropical pastures on ferrosols in northern New South Wales of Australia can be a significant source of GHG. Our hypothesis that the application of biochar would lead to a reduction in emissions of GHG from soils was not supported in this field assessment. Additional studies with longer observation periods are needed to clarify the long term effect of biochar amendment on soil microbial processes and the emission of GHGs under field conditions.     

Soil N and C trace gas fluxes and microbial soil N turnover in a sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) forest in Hungary

During two intensive field campaigns in summer and autumn 2004 nitrogen (N₂O, NO/NO₂) and carbon (CO₂, CH₄) trace gas exchange between soil and the atmosphere was measured in a sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) forest in Hungary. The climate can be described as continental temperate. Fluxes were measured with a fully automatic measuring system allowing for high temporal resolution. Mean N₂O emission rates were 1.5 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹ in summer and 3.4 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹ in autumn, respectively. Also mean NO emission rates were higher in autumn (8.4 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹) as compared to summer (6.0 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹). However, as NO₂ deposition rates continuously exceeded NO emission rates (−9.7 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹ in summer and −18.3 μg N m⁻² h⁻¹ in autumn), the forest soil always acted as a net NO _x sink. The mean value of CO₂ fluxes showed only little seasonal differences between summer (81.1 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹) and autumn (74.2 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹) measurements, likewise CH₄uptake (summer: −52.6 μg C m⁻² h⁻¹; autumn: −56.5 μg C m⁻² h⁻¹). In addition, the microbial soil processes net/gross N mineralization, net/gross nitrification and heterotrophic soil respiration as well as inorganic soil nitrogen concentrations and N₂O/CH₄ soil air concentrations in different soil depths were determined. The respiratory quotient (ΔCO_{2 resp} ΔO_{2 resp}⁻¹) for the uppermost mineral soil, which is needed for the calculation of gross nitrification via the Barometric Process Separation (BaPS) technique, was 0.8978 ± 0.008. The mean value of gross nitrification rates showed only little seasonal differences between summer (0.99 μg N kg⁻¹ SDW d⁻¹) and autumn measurements (0.89 μg N kg⁻¹ SDW d⁻¹). Gross rates of N mineralization were highest in the organic layer (20.1–137.9 μg N kg⁻¹ SDW d⁻¹) and significantly lower in the uppermost mineral layer (1.3–2.9 μg N kg⁻¹ SDW d⁻¹). Only for the organic layer seasonality in gross N mineralization rates could be demonstrated, with highest mean values in autumn, most likely caused by fresh litter decomposition. Gross mineralization rates of the organic layer were positively correlated with N₂O emissions and negatively correlated with CH₄ uptake, whereas soil CO₂ emissions were positively correlated with heterotrophic respiration in the uppermost mineral soil layer. The most important abiotic factor influencing C and N trace gas fluxes was soil moisture, while the influence of soil temperature on trace gas exchange rates was high only in autumn.