干扰素系统与病毒的相互作用

干扰素是最早发现的细胞因子之一,不同类型的IFN生物活性基本相同,具有抗病毒、抗肿瘤和免疫调节等作用。病毒侵染细胞,诱导细胞产生IFN,IFN通过不同的作用机制启动宿主防御系统,激活酶和作用因子来拮抗病毒的侵染、复制和转录过程。正因为干扰素在抗病毒防御过程中的关键作用,因此病毒已经衍生出了有效的方式能够成功的侵染宿主。病毒通过表达一些拮抗蛋白来干扰IFN的诱导产生、IFN的信号转导或效应蛋白的作用,从而终止干扰素的产生并破坏干扰素诱导的其它因子的作用来逃避干扰素的作用。     

Ⅲ型干扰素——新型抗病毒细胞因子

干扰素（IFN）是抗病毒感染的第一道防线,Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型干扰素不仅可抑制病毒,而且还能参与天然免疫反应和获得性免疫反应。最近干扰素家族增添一位新成员：Ⅲ型干扰素,即IFN-λ,因其具有类似干扰素的抗病毒活性且能诱导干扰素相关基因的表达而命名。IFN-λ受体与Ⅰ型干扰素的受体不同,但具有与Ⅰ型干扰素类似的诱导表达方式和信号转导通路,并能激活一系列相似的干扰素刺激基因。就IFN-λ家族及其受体、基因表达和信号转导机制、抗病毒作用等进行综述。     

Ⅰ型IFN的结构、信号传导和功能

IFN是一种具有广谱抗病毒、抗肿瘤、抑制细胞增殖及免疫调节作用的活性蛋白,至少可分为α、β、δ、ε、κ、ω、τ和limitin八种,分子质量约为18.5 kDa,包括4个保守的半胱氨酸,形成2对分子内二硫键。IFN-α/βR是IFN-α和IFN-β共同结合受体,包括IFNAR1和IFNAR2,IFNAR1仅有1个亚单位,IFNAR2由3个亚单位组成。IFN与位于细胞膜上的特异性受体结合,主要经JAK-STAT途径介导信号传导,不仅能通过PKR、2-′5′OAS、Mx和ADAR1等途径发挥抗病毒作用,还能通过对淋巴细胞和巨噬细胞的调节以及诱导MHC分子表达等途径发挥直接或间接的免疫调节作用。     

禽类抗病毒蛋白质-Mx蛋白

Mx蛋白是在干扰素（IFN）诱导下产生的具有抗病毒功能的蛋白质,Mx蛋白具有GTPase活性,其C末端的区域是进行亚细胞定位及与病毒直接作用的区域。人类IFN诱导的MxA蛋白能够维持机体的抗病毒状态,抵抗病毒的感染。禽类的Mx蛋白抗病毒活性与GED区单核苷酸多态性有关,其中631位氨基酸N与S的变化可以改变其抗病毒的作用。据此,Mx基因单核苷酸多态性（SNP）标记可指导人类疾病的临床治疗和应用于禽类的抗病育种。     

脊椎动物病毒与微RNA

抗病毒作用是RNA干扰(RNAi)在植物及低等动物中的一个重要功能。一方面,宿主细胞编码并表达短干扰RNA(siRNA),对入侵细胞的病毒产生抑制作用;另一方面,病毒编码并表达特定的RNA或蛋白质,以对抗宿主细胞的RNAi。在部分脊椎动物病毒中已经发现多种由病毒编码的微RNA(miRNA),它们对病毒及细胞基因的表达有重要的调节作用。同时,某些细胞miRNA也可影响脊椎动物病毒的复制。然而,RNAi在脊椎动物细胞中是否具有广谱抗病毒活性、脊椎动物病毒又是否普遍编码miRNA及普遍具备拮抗RNAi的机制?目前尚无定论,有待于进一步的研究加以阐明。     

综述:天然免疫限制因子Tetherin的抗病毒机理研究进展

天然免疫限制因子Tetherin(骨髓基质细胞抗原2)是Ⅰ型干扰素诱导产生的Ⅱ型跨膜蛋白．Tetherin通过其特殊的拓扑结构,在病毒出芽过程中将病毒粒子连接在细胞膜表面,限制病毒的有效释放,从而发挥广谱性的抗病毒活性,而病毒也可以通过多种策略拮抗Tetherin的抗病毒活性．病毒与宿主长期抗争进化的结果表现为病毒特定拮抗蛋白对抗不同种属细胞Tetherin的限制存在种属特异性．本文通过对Tetherin的分子结构、抗病毒活性及其拮抗蛋白的对抗机制等最新进展进行综述,为研究病毒与宿主相互作用的分子机制以及新型抗病毒药物的筛选提供借鉴．     

天然免疫限制因子Tetherin的抗病毒机理研究进展

天然免疫限制因子Tetherin(骨髓基质细胞抗原2)是Ⅰ型干扰素诱导产生的Ⅱ型跨膜蛋白.Tetherin通过其特殊的拓扑结构,在病毒出芽过程中将病毒粒子连接在细胞膜表面,限制病毒的有效释放,从而发挥广谱性的抗病毒活性,而病毒也可以通过多种策略拮抗Tetherin的抗病毒活性.病毒与宿主长期抗争进化的结果表现为病毒特定拮抗蛋白对抗不同种属细胞Tetherin的限制存在种属特异性.本文通过对Tetherin的分子结构、抗病毒活性及其拮抗蛋白的对抗机制等最新进展进行综述,为研究病毒与宿主相互作用的分子机制以及新型抗病毒药物的筛选提供借鉴.     

联合IFN-α与U0126的抗EV-A71作用及其机制研究

目的在细胞学水平明确IFN-α和胞外信号调节激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK)通路抑制剂U0126联合用药对肠道病毒A71(EV-A71)感染的作用及其可能机制。方法利用病毒致细胞病变效应、病毒终点滴定实验以及Western blot,确定IFN-α和U0126联合用药对EV-A71抗病毒效果,对细胞干扰素(interferon, IFN)受体及其下游信号通路重要蛋白水平、ERK通路活性的影响。结果 IFN-α和U0126联合用药能有效发挥抗EV-A71增殖的作用(P0.01),同时也能有效抑制ERK通路磷酸化活性、阻断EV-A71 2A~(pro)介导的I型干扰素受体1(interferon alpha receptor 1, IFNAR1)表达水平下调(P0.001),并上调IFN信号通路重要分子eIF2α磷酸化(P0.001)。此外,利用ERK抑制剂(U0126和sorafenib)或特异性siRNA分别阻断ERK磷酸化活性后,可显著阻断肠道病毒2A~(pro)介导的eIF4GI切割和IFNAR1表达下调的作用,同时受染细胞EV-A71复制也显著下降。结论 IFN-α和U0126联合用药可通过有效地抑制ERK通路,抑制2A~(pro)依赖的切割eIF4GI和下调IFNAR1表达的作用,使得外源IFN-α能更有效与细胞膜上IFNAR结合,有效激活IFN抗病毒信号通路,从而发挥IFN抗EV-A71蛋白翻译及增殖作用。     

猪流行性腹泻病毒nsp1蛋白对Ⅰ型干扰素应答的影响

猪流行性腹泻病毒 (PEDV) 能抑制宿主Ⅰ型干扰素及其诱导的细胞抗病毒免疫应答,但是PEDV抑制Ⅰ型干扰素应答的分子机制尚不明了,尤其是PEDV非结构蛋白 (Nonstructural proteins,nsps) 在Ⅰ型干扰素应答中的调控作用研究不多。为研究PEDV非结构蛋白1 (nsp1) 对细胞Ⅰ型干扰素应答的影响,构建了真核表达载体pCAGGS-nsp1,采用Western blotting和间接免疫荧光试验确定nsp1在细胞中的表达。通过报告基因法、ELISA以及病毒复制抑制试验评估nsp1对Ⅰ型IFN的影响。结果显示,nsp1在转染细胞和病毒感染细胞中均高效表达;双荧光报告基因试验结果表明,nsp1能显著抑制IFN-β启动子活性,且具有剂量依赖性。ELISA结果显示,nsp1能显著抑制IFN-β蛋白的表达。水泡性口炎病毒 (VSV) 复制抑制试验结果显示,nsp1明显抑制poly(I:C)介导的Ⅰ型IFN的抗病毒作用。结果提示,nsp1作为PEDV的保守蛋白,具有拮抗Ⅰ型干扰素启动子活性和应答的功能,为揭示PEDV逃逸宿主天然免疫应答的机制和研发新型高效抗PEDV疫苗奠定基础。     

长链非编码RNA——抗病毒天然免疫应答的新兴调控因子

长链非编码RNA(long non-coding RNAs, lncRNAs)是长度超过200nt的非编码RNA分子的总称。作为一类重要的基因调控因子,lncRNAs在表观遗传学、转录及转录后等多个水平调控靶基因的表达。近年来的研究表明,许多lncRNAs可被病毒或干扰素(interferon, IFN)诱导表达,并作为调控因子在IFN介导的抗病毒天然免疫应答中调节抗病毒相关基因的表达。本文重点阐述了lncRNAs在IFN介导的抗病毒天然免疫应答中的调控作用,尤其是对干扰素刺激基因(interferon-stimulated genes, ISGs)转录的调控作用,并归纳了lncRNAs、IFN和ISGs形成的调控网络,以期为从事lncRNAs调控IFN介导的抗病毒天然免疫应答机制研究的相关科研人员提供参考。     

Synergistic antiviral and antiproliferative activities of Escherichia coli-derived human alpha, beta, and gamma interferons

The antiviral and antiproliferative effects of highly purified Escherichia coli-derived human interferons (IFNs) were examined in human melanoma cells (Hs294T). Antiproliferative activity was monitored by measuring inhibition of cell multiplication, and antiviral activity was determined by inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication. Treatment of cells with IFN-gamma in combination with IFN-alpha A or IFN-beta 1 resulted in potentiation of both antiproliferative and antiviral activities. In contrast, combination treatments composed of IFN-alpha A and IFN beta 1 yielded inconsistent results. Some combinations reflected additive responses, whereas others were antagonistic. To examine correlations between IFN-induced biological activities and interactions of the different IFNs with cell surface receptors, in vivo [35S]methionine-labeled IFN-alpha A was prepared. Binding studies indicated the presence of 2,980 +/- 170 receptors per cell, each with an apparent Kd of (8.4 +/- 1.3) X 10(-11) M. Results from competitive binding studies suggested that Hs294T cells possess at least two types of IFN receptors: one which binds IFN-alpha A and IFN-beta 1 and another to which IFN-gamma binds.     

Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy

The action of interferons (IFNs) on virus-infected cells and surrounding tissues elicits an antiviral state that is characterized by the expression and antiviral activity of IFN-stimulated genes. In turn, viruses encode mechanisms to counteract the host response and support efficient viral replication, thereby minimizing the therapeutic antiviral power of IFNs. In this review, we discuss the interplay between the IFN system and four medically important and challenging viruses -- influenza, hepatitis C, herpes simplex and vaccinia -- to highlight the diversity of viral strategies. Understanding the complex network of cellular antiviral processes and virus-host interactions should aid in identifying new and common targets for the therapeutic intervention of virus infection. This effort must take advantage of the recent developments in functional genomics, bioinformatics and other emerging technologies.     

Enhancement of interferon-induced 2–5 oligoadenylate synthetase activity by retinoic acid in human histiocytic lymphoma U937 cells and WISH cells

The effect of retinoic acid (RA) on the level of interferon (IFN)-induced 2-5 oligoadenylate (2-5A) synthetase activity was examined in human histiocytic lymphoma U937 cells and WISH cells** in order to ascertain the role of this polymerase in interaction between IFNs and RA. Cultures containing both IFNs (1-100 U/ml) and RA (0.1-10 microM) consistently had higher levels of enzyme activity than corresponding cells treated with IFN alone and this was true for all three types of IFNs in both cell lines. The potentiating effect of RA was dose- and time-dependent and under optimal conditions, the induction of the synthetase was synergistic between IFN-beta (10-100 U/ml) and RA (0.1-10 microM). Furthermore, pretreatment (but not posttreatment) with RA followed by subsequent treatment with IFNs preferentially induced higher levels of enzyme activity in U937 cells but not in WISH cells. In addition, our results indicated that the modulating effect of RA on IFNs did not involve interaction at the receptor level and the level of enhancement of 2-5A synthetase activity was not in parallel with either cell-growth arrest or promotion of differentiation. Lastly, the present study raises the possibility that interactions between IFNs and RA, in either a synergistic or antagonistic manner, may be mediated through amplification of the 2-5A system.     

Crystal structure of Zebrafish interferons I and II reveals conservation of type I interferon structure in vertebrates

Interferons (IFNs) play a major role in orchestrating the innate immune response toward viruses in vertebrates, and their defining characteristic is their ability to induce an antiviral state in responsive cells. Interferons have been reported in a multitude of species, from bony fish to mammals. However, our current knowledge about the molecular function of fish IFNs as well as their evolutionary relationship to tetrapod IFNs is limited. Here we establish the three-dimensional (3D) structure of zebrafish IFN?1 and IFN?2 by crystallography. These high-resolution structures offer the first structural insight into fish cytokines. Tetrapods possess two types of IFNs that play an immediate antiviral role: type I IFNs (e.g., alpha interferon [IFN-α] and beta interferon [IFN-β]) and type III IFNs (lambda interferon [IFN-λ]), and each type is characterized by its specific receptor usage. Similarly, two groups of antiviral IFNs with distinct receptors exist in fish, including zebrafish. IFN?1 and IFN?2 represent group I and group II IFNs, respectively. Nevertheless, both structures reported here reveal a characteristic type I IFN architecture with a straight F helix, as opposed to the remaining class II cytokines, including IFN-λ, where helix F contains a characteristic bend. Phylogenetic trees derived from structure-guided multiple alignments confirmed that both groups of fish IFNs are evolutionarily closer to type I than to type III tetrapod IFNs. Thus, these fish IFNs belong to the type I IFN family. Our results also imply that a dual antiviral IFN system has arisen twice during vertebrate evolution.     

Immune activation of type I IFNs by Listeria monocytogenes occurs independently of TLR4, TLR2, and receptor interacting protein 2 but involves TNFR-associated NF kappa B kinase-binding kinase 1

Type I IFNs are well established antiviral cytokines that have also been shown to be induced by bacteria. However, the signaling mechanisms regulating the activation of these cytokines during bacterial infections remain poorly defined. We show that although Gram-negative bacteria can activate the type I IFN pathway through TLR4, the intracellular Gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes (LM) can do so independently of TLR4 and TLR2. Furthermore, experiments using genetic mutants and chemical inhibitors suggest that LM-induced type I IFN activation occurs by an intracellular pathway involving the serine-threonine kinase TNFR-associated NF-kappaB kinase (TANK)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). Interestingly, receptor-interacting protein 2, a component of the recently discovered nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-dependent intracellular detection pathway, was not involved. Taken together, our data describe a novel signal transduction pathway involving TBK1 that is used by LM to activate type I IFNs. Additionally, we provide evidence that both the LM- and TLR-dependent pathways converge at TBK1 to activate type I IFNs, highlighting the central role of this molecule in modulating type I IFNs in host defense and disease.     

Brain heterogeneity leads to differential innate immune responses and modulates pathogenesis of viral infections

The central nervous system (CNS) is a highly complex organ with highly specialized cell subtypes. Viral infections often target specific structures of the brain and replicate in certain regions. Studies in mice deficient in type I Interferon (IFN) receptor or IFN-β have highlighted the importance of the type I IFN system against viral infections and non-viral autoimmune disorders in the CNS. Direct antiviral effects of type I IFNs appear to be crucial in limiting early spread of a number of viruses in CNS tissues. Increased efforts have been made to characterize IFN expression and responses in the brain. In this context, it is important to identify cells that produce IFN, decipher pathways leading to type I IFN expression and to characterize responding cells. In this review we give an overview about region specific aspects that influence local innate immune responses. The route of entry is critical, but also the susceptibility of different cell types, heterogeneity in subpopulations and micro-environmental cues play an important role in antiviral responses.Recent work has outlined the tremendous importance of type I IFNs, particularly in the limitation of viral spread within the CNS. This review will address recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of local type I IFN production and response, in the particular context of the CNS.     

The EM structure of a type I interferon-receptor complex reveals a novel mechanism for cytokine signaling

Type I interferons (IFNs) have pleiotropic effects, including antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory responses. All type I IFNs bind to a shared receptor consisting of the two transmembrane proteins ifnar1 and ifnar2. We used negative stain electron microscopy to calculate a three-dimensional reconstruction of the ternary complex formed by a triple mutant IFN α2 with the ectodomains of ifnar1 and ifnar2. We present a model of the complex obtained by placing atomic models of subunits into the density map of the complex. The complex of IFN α2 with its receptor (a class II cytokine receptor) shows structural similarities to the complexes formed by growth hormone and erythropoietin with their receptors (members of the class I cytokine receptor family). Despite different assembly mechanisms, class I and class II cytokine receptors thus appear to initiate signaling through similar arrangements of the receptors induced by the binding of their respective ligands.