Developmental relations between the weight of internal organs and somatic features of fetuses and newborns

The paper contains results of investigations on statistical developmental interrelations between the weight of brain, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands and thymus, and the total length, the crown-rump length and the body weight, and the circumference of head, shoulders, chest and abdomen of fetuses and newborns in the age from 17 to 43 weeks of life. The character and the force of the relations between the degree of the development of the weight of organs and the body dimensions was investigated by statistical methods on three levels. On the basis of the value of linear correlation coefficients, statistical relations were determined between the weight of the particular organs and the particular sometic features. The dependence between the particular organs and the complex of somatic features was determined on the basis on the multiple regression analysis. On the other hand the relation between two complexes of features, i.e. all organs and all somatic features was investigated with the help of canonical correlation coefficients. The analysis of results indicated that between the weight of internal organs and the somatic features in the fetal period there exists a statistical developmental relation. The developmental relations are most strongly marked between the 6th and the 10th months of intrauterine life, while in the 5th month of life and in postmature fetuses and newborns they are weaker.     

The formation of heart-proportion in fetal ontogenesis.

In the paper, the formation of basic heart proportions in the period from the 19th to 43rd week of intrauterine development was investigated. The material consisted of 1505 fetuses (930 male and 575 female). Length, width and thickness of the heart were measured to 0.1 mm on unpreserved fetus material within 24 hours after stillbirth or death, in the natural position of the organ. The material was divided into groups representing seven developmental periods, from the 5th to the 10th lunar month. Individuals from the 41st-43rd week were recognized as carried beyond term and included in the age category above the 10th month (< 10). Formation of heart proportions was investigated on the basis of a statistical analysis of the results, with both sexes considered separately. Evaluation of the research results confirmed previous results indicating a slightly different shape of the heart in the fetal period. In addition, the results show the changes that occur in heart proportions during the period of intrauterine development. A comparison of these proportions with analogous indices in adult individuals makes it possible to predict further developmental changes in the postnatal period. In comparison to the conical heart found in a grown-up individual, the fetal heart is more spherical. At the beginning of the fetal period, the length dimension of the heart is greater than its width. Beginning with the 9th month of development, a relatively slower elongation of the heart occurs in favour of a more rapid increase in its width dimension.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Sexual dimorphism of the weight of internal organs in fetal ontogenesis

The paper contains results of the investigation on the sexual differentiation of the weight of brain, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands and thymus. The studies were carried out on a total of 632 fetuses (349 males and 283 females) and 1276 newborns (795 males and 481 females) in the age from 17 to 43 weeks of life. The study of sexual dimorphism of internal organs concludes that in the period of fetal development of man this dimorphism is weakly developed.     

Prevalence of severe retinopathy of prematurity in a geographically defined population in Croatia

The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of stage III of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) among newborns of birth weight < 1500 g and gestational age (GA) < or = 32 weeks, and to compare these prevalences during two time periods (1998-2002 and 2003-2007). The investigation was conducted at the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital in Rijeka, Croatia. The screening for ROP was performed by an ophthalmologist using a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope. Over a period of 10 years, there were 28,627 liveborn newborns, with 136 (0.48%) premature newborns with a birth weights < 1500 g and 226 (0.79%) newborns with GA at birth < or = 32 weeks. The proportions of survivors among newborns with birth weights < 1500 g (51.1% vs. 70.5%) and among newborns with GA at birth < or = 32 weeks (67.9% vs. 77.0%) were significantly higher in the later period. During the period 2003-2007, the proportion examined for ROP was higher among newborns with birth weight < 1500 g (52.9% vs. 97.1%) and among newborns with GA at birth < or = 32 weeks (46.5% vs. 96.9%). The prevalence of stage III ROP was significantly lower in 2003-2007 compared to that in 1998-2002 among newborns with birth weight < 1500 g (30.6% vs. 14.0%) and newborns with GA at birth < or = 32 weeks (22.4% vs. 8.8%). The prevalence of total ROP among newborns was significantly lower in 2003-2007 compared with 1998-2002. This decrease in prevalence may be explained by advances in neonatal intensive care unit, increased survival of very low birth weight infants and carefully timed retinal examinations.     

Change of some quantitative indices of the proximal and the distal growth cartilage of the human tibia during the period of the prenatal osteogenesis

The zones of the tibial growth cartilage of human fetuses (6th lunar month), premature newborns (7th-8th lunar month) and mature newborns were micrometrically studied. The zone thickness, the chondrocyte number in a certain area and in the cell columns as well, and the volume density of the chondrocytes were determined. The obtained quantitative data show that the three indices undergo certain changes during the three age periods of the prenatal osteogenesis studied. They differ in the proximal and in the distal cartilages as well. The fetal tibia is found to be growing more intensively at its distal end. The quantitative processes within the growth cartilages of the tibia are more active during the earlier stages of the intrauterine period while the qualitative processes are found to be more active at the end of the intrauterine period.     

The natural history of gastroschisis during fetal life: development of the fibrous coating on the bowel loops

Patients with gastroschisis have a paraumbilical defect of the anterior abdominal wall through which bowel loops protrude. These bowel loops are edematous and covered by a fibrous coating. The moment of occurrence of gastroschisis as well as the development of the fibrous coating are unknown. This prompted an investigation of 26 human embryos and fetuses with gastroschisis at various developmental stages (crown-rump length 25-240 mm) and two stillborn fetuses (gestational age 30 weeks) with gastroschisis, as well as resected material from ten newborns (gestational age 33-40 weeks) operated for gastroschisis. Progressive changes of the serosa were only noted after the 30th week of gestation and consisted of an amniotic fluid peritonitis and progressive fibrosis. The changes are in agreement with experimental data and correlate with changes in the composition of amniotic fluid. The findings prove that gastroschisis is a very early occurrence, while the fibrous coating is a late development.     

Vertical transmission and pathological findings in the mother,the placenta and the offspring,during first and last thirds of gestation in a mouse model of congenital toxoplasmosis

We performed a study of congenital toxoplasmosis of the first and third gestation periods in mice, and determined its effects on the embryos/fetuses, the placentae and the maternal organs. We infected pregnant BALB/c mice by i.v. injection of 2.5‐–10.0 × 10⁶ tachyzoites of the ME49 T. gondii strain and euthanized them 72 h later. The tissues were analyzed by histopathology, immunohistochemistry and parasite-specific qPCR. Infections with the lowest dose induced remarkably different changes in the two thirds: a) all doses diminished the number of products/litter, the lowest dose only by 14%; but most embryos still visible were degenerated in the case of the first period, while the fetuses of the last third were perfectly preserved; b) the transmission rate in the first third was relatively high, but with a very low parasite burden; c) with the lowest dose, strong vascular changes (congestion, thrombosis and hemorrhage) predominated in the placentas of the first period, while they were absent in the last third; d) necrosis caused by T. gondii to maternal organs was much stronger during the last gestation period than in the first. Our results suggest that the vascular alterations at the placenta of the first third of pregnancy prevent embryo from large parasite burden, but provoke its death by starvation. In the last gestation period, there was poor control of parasite dissemination to the placenta and the fetus, but there was greater capacity of the product to defend itself from T. gondii.     

Distribution and activity of pyridoxal kinase in human brain during ontogenesis]

The activity of pyridoxal kinase was sharply increased in whole brain tissue of human, embryos and fetuses within 6-11 weeks of development. In brain stem the maximal values of the enzyme activity was observed at early stages of prenatal development of fetuses. The activity of pyridoxal kinase was increased in cerebral cortex and in the limbic system up to complete maturation of fetuses. It correlated with the fetus age within 14-40 weeks of development as calculated per 1 g of tissue wight or 1 mg of protein. The enzyme is distributed evenly in brain of newborns, babies and adult people. Its activity in grey cortex substance is higher, than in white one. There are 2-10-fold individual fluctuations of pyridoxal kinase activity in brain of people without CNS pathology. In newborns, having prolonged hypoxy at prenatal period, the enzyme activity was on the average by 70-80% lower at different brain parts than in newborns which had no primary asphyxia. A low pyridoxal kinase activity (not more than 1-5% as compared with its normal level) was observed in different brain parts of a child affected by focal gliosis and epilepsy.     

Postnatal changes in 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) content of calf erythrocytes

In 82 calves, 22 adult cows and 10 fetuses the 2,3-DPG level was determined in the erythrocytes. The lowest level was found in cows (1.13 microM/g haemoglobin, on the average), and in calves aged 35 days or more. In the foetuses the mean 2,3-DPG concentration in the erythrocytes was 4.98 microM/g Hb and it was higher that that in the erythrocytes of cows, the oldest foetuses and calves during the first two days of postnatal life. During 5 weeks of postnatal life the changes taking place in 2,3-DPG concentration could be divided into two periods: period I or the period of increase covering the first 6 days of life, with a characteristic rise in the concentration of this component from 1.37 to 15.80 microM/g Hb, and period II or the period of decrease lasting from the 6th to the 35th day of life. In period II two phases could be discerned, the first phase lasting from the 6th to the 10th day with a steep fall of 2,3-DPG level from 15.80 to 4.58 microM/g Hb, and the second phase from the 10th to the 35th day of life in which the level of 2,3-DPG reached slowly the value found in adult cows. A comparison of oxygen affinity of haemoglobin in calves aged 6 days, which was composed of about 80% of fetal haemoglobin and about 20% of adult haemoglobin, and in adult cows, which contained exclusively adult haemoglobin, showed that the oxygen-binding capacity of haemoglobin was lower in calves.     

Growth failure in second-trimester fetuses with trisomy 21

Growth failure in the Down syndrome is common postnatally, but is thought to be less consistent in fetuses and newborns. We describe the growth of individual organs in 53 second-trimester abortuses with trisomy 21 and compare the organ weights to organ weights from 432 spontaneously aborted, but otherwise normal control specimens. Using multiple regression analysis, we found body weight to be the most significant predictor of all organ weights in normal fetuses; therefore, this variable was used to generate the regression lines to which the organ weights of trisomic specimens were compared. All trisomic fetal organs were found to be small, with an abnormal karyotype being a significant predictor of low organ weight. However, the effect on individual organs was variable, with some organs differing only minimally from the controls. Placental weights were not affected by fetal trisomy. This study demonstrates the presence of well-established, although variably severe, growth retardation in second-trimester fetuses with Down syndrome.     

Size-at-birth standards for an urban Canadian population.

By random sampling of all births occurring in Hamilton, Ont. over an 18-month period the percentile distributions of the newborn infants'' weight, length, and head and chest circumferences were determined. The resulting standards may be used in the clinical evaluation of size for gestational age. The smoothed 50th percentile values for newborns of 40 weeks gestational age were as follows for boys and girls respectively: birth weight 3530 and 3355 g, crown-heel length 52.0 and 51.3 cm, head circumference 35.2 and 34.4 cm, and chest circumference 33.4 and 32.8 cm. The mother''s height averaged 160.8 +/- 6.1 cm and her weight before the pregnancy 59.2 +/- 10.5 kg. The prevalence of cigarette smoking during pregnancy was 34.8%.     

Plasma concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in dams and fetuses following acute or multiple prenatal dosing in rats

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was administered by gastric intubation to pregnant rats to study the effects of dose-level and dosing regimen on plasma concentration in dams and fetuses. Two multiple-dose groups were administered either 15 or 50 mg/kg of delta-9-THC once daily during the last two weeks of gestation. Two acute groups were administered the same dose as above but only once on the last day of gestation. Sixty min after receiving the last dose all dams and their fetuses were sacrificed by decapitation, blood collected, centrifuged and plasma removed. Quantitative measurement of delta-9-THC in plasma was carried out using GS/MS. Among the dams, plasma concentrations covaried with dose and multiple dosing produced higher concentrations than acute, especially at the high dose. Among the fetuses, plasma concentrations were approximately 10% of those found in the dams. The fetuses from the high, multiple-dose dams similarly yielded significantly higher concentrations. These findings are discussed with respect to other studies of the placental transfer of delta-9-THC and effects of postnatal developmental.     

Secondary production of Calanus helgolandicus in the Western English Channel

The objective of this study was to investigate the production of Calanus helgolandicus off Plymouth, Western English Channel, from April to August 1998 comparing a range of different methods. The abundance of all developmental stages from NI to adult was determined. Body carbon and nitrogen and length were measured on individual NVI to adults. Female egg production was also monitored. All developmental stages were generally represented but four main periods of recruitment were determined. Two periods of low egg production were observed on the 13th and on the 27th of July: (i) the first was due to the arrival of newly moulted or not yet fertilised females in the population and (ii) the second low period was possibly due to the senescence of the females. Finally, the total production of C. helgolandicus was estimated using four different methods: the weight increment, the egg production, Huntley and Lopez and Hirst and Lampitt methods. Depending on the methods used, the production accumulated over the period from May 14 to August 10 ranged between 12 and 45 mg C m⁻³.     

Genetic diversity, population structure, effective population size and demographic history of the Finnish wolf population

The Finnish wolf population (Canis lupus) was sampled during three different periods (1996-1998, 1999-2001 and 2002-2004), and 118 individuals were genotyped with 10 microsatellite markers. Large genetic variation was found in the population despite a recent demographic bottleneck. No spatial population subdivision was found even though a significant negative relationship between genetic relatedness and geographic distance suggested isolation by distance. Very few individuals did not belong to the local wolf population as determined by assignment analyses, suggesting a low level of immigration in the population. We used the temporal approach and several statistical methods to estimate the variance effective size of the population. All methods gave similar estimates of effective population size, approximately 40 wolves. These estimates were slightly larger than the estimated census size of breeding individuals. A Bayesian model based on Markov chain Monte Carlo simulations indicated strong evidence for a long-term population decline. These results suggest that the contemporary wolf population size is roughly 8% of its historical size, and that the population decline dates back to late 19th century or early 20th century. Despite an increase of over 50% in the census size of the population during the whole study period, there was only weak evidence that the effective population size during the last period was higher than during the first. This may be caused by increased inbreeding, diminished dispersal within the population, and decreased immigration to the population during the last study period.     

Netilmicin in the complex therapy of pneumonia in newborns]

Clinical efficacy of netilmicin was evaluated at 22 newborns (body weight from 1000 to 3600 g, delivery on pregnancy period from 28 to 41 weeks) with pneumonia caused by artificial pulmonary ventilation. Pneumonia was moderate at 13 patients and severe at 9 patients. Microorganisms isolated from tracheobronchial aspirates were mainly (in 19 cases of 22) susceptible to netilmicin. The usage of netilmicin in combination with cephalosporins was effective at the main part of the newborns and resulted with the full recovery of 11 newborns (all the patients with moderate pneumonia), in 9 cases improvement was registered (including 7 newborns with severe pneumonia). Newborns with severe pneumonia had a slow pathogens elimination.     

Effect of prenatal exposure to diagnostic ultrasound on the development of mice.

Pregnant Swiss albino mice were exposed to diagnostic ultrasound (3.5 MHz, approximately 65 mW) for 10 min on Day 3.5 (preimplantation period), 6.5 (early organogenesis period), or 11.5 (late organogenesis period) of gestation. Sham-exposed controls were maintained for comparison. Exposed as well as control fetuses were dissected out on the 18th day of gestation, and changes in total mortality, body weight, body length, head length, brain weight, sex ratio, and microphthalmia were recorded. Exposure on Day 3.5 of gestation resulted in a small increase in the resorption rate and a significant reduction in fetal body weight. A low fetal weight and an increase in the number of growth-retarded fetuses were produced by exposure on Day 6.5 postcoitus. A statistically nonsignificant increase in the incidence of microphthalmia was induced in fetuses exposed on Day 6.5 or Day 11.5 of gestation. These results indicate that ultrasound may have some adverse effects on the mouse embryos depending on the developmental stage at which the exposure occurred.     

Localisation of carcinoembryonic antigen in embryonic and fetal human tissues

Summary Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) was localized in various embryonic and fetal human tissues between 8 and 16 weeks of gestation as well as in the colorectal mucosa of older fetuses, newborns and adults. Among the embryonic tissues, CEA was always present in the esophagus, the gastric antrum, the duodenum and the rectum. CEA positive staining of bile cannaliculi of the liver was inconstant. All other embryonic tissues were CEA negative. During early fetal development CEA positive staining of the esophagus, antrum and duodenum was inconstant. However, the whole colon became intensively stained. An inconstant CEA specific staining was found in parts of the midgut and in the bile cannaliculi of the liver. The other organs remained CEA negative. Between the 17th week of gestation and birth, CEA staining pattern of the colorectal mucosa did not change. The staining intensity of late fetal colonic mucosa was similar to that of adult colonic mucosa.Deceased 20th August 1982     

Developmental progression of Gpd expression from the inactive X chromosome of the virginia opossum

Metatherian (marsupial) mammals possess a non-random form of X-chromosome inactivation in which the paternally-derived X is always the one inactivated. To examine the progression of X-linked gene expression during metatherian development, we compared relative levels of the maternally and paternally encoded Gpd gene products in heterozygous female Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) across a moior portion of the developmental period. Panels of tissues obtained from fetuses, newborns, and pouch young were examined via polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the G6PD protein. As in adults, G6PD phenotypes in these developmental stages were highly skewed in favor of the maternal allele product, but in some tissues there was a marked increase in paternal allele expression with advancing developmental age. However, even by 42 days of post-partum development, expression of the paternal Gpd allele had not attained the adult, tissue-specific activity pattern. Our findings indicate remarkable developmental changes in the activity of the paternal allele in several tissues/organs continuing well into mid pouch-life stages and beyond. Specifically we found that 1) a substantially repressed paternal Gpdgene is present in the cells of female stage 29 fetuses and later developmental stages, 2) the activity state of the paternal Gpd gene is not fixed during early embryonic development in this species, 3) maior changes in paternal Gpd expression occur in advanced developmental stages and comprise a maturation of the gene expression pattern during ontogeny, and 4) alterations of paternal Gpd allele activity during development occur in a tissue-specific manner. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.