Haematology and serum biochemistry of captive unsedated chital deer (Axis axis) in Australia

Haematological and serum biochemical values were measured in blood samples collected over a 12-mo period from 37 unsedated chital deer (Axis axis). Stags and hinds, ranging in age from birth to maturity, were sampled. Haemoglobin, total erythrocyte and haematocrit values were low at birth and sex differences were not apparent in neonates and juveniles, but were in adults. Chital stags had higher erythrocyte parameters (P less than 0.001) and lower erythrocyte indices than hinds, and the total leucocyte count was higher in stags (P less than 0.01). Some parameters (erythrocytes, muscle enzymes, glucose, cortisol) decreased over successive serial sampling. The differential leucocyte count of older stags decreased during the initial handling period. The major rutting period in February and March was characterised by changes in the differential leucocyte count, elevations in serum muscle enzymes, and lower serum cortisol levels. Alkaline phosphatase activity in serum reflected the annual antler cycle of chital stags. Serial sampling over many weeks, either weekly or tri-weekly, produced haematological and biochemical changes in successive samples which may have reflected a reduction in stress and excitement associated with restraint.     

Seasonal variations in semen characteristics, semen cryopreservation, estrus synchronization, and successful artificial insemination in the spotted deer (Axis axis)

Ten adult male spotted deer were monitored over a 2-year interval to determine seasonal variations in testicular size, semen characteristics and serum testosterone concentrations, and to determine if there was an association between season and type of antler. Mean (+/-S.E.M.) testicular volume (118.8+/-4.6 cm(3)), serum testosterone concentration (1.2+/-0.1 ng/mL), semen volume (4.1+/-0.6 mL), sperm concentration (338.3+/-24.9 x 10(6) mL(-1)), percentage of morphologically normal sperm (79.1+/-2.8%), and percentage of motile sperm (66.5+/-1.5%) were higher (P<0.05) in hard antler deer (peaked from March to May) than in deer with velvet antlers or in deer in which the antler has been shed. Thus, March-May was considered the physiologic breeding season for these deer; at this time, all stags had hard antlers. Furthermore, a Tris-citrate-based semen extender containing 4% glycerol and 20% egg-yolk was adequate for cryopreservation of semen. Estrus was induced with an implant containing norgestomet, timed transcervical AI was done with fresh semen, and 3 of 10 females were pregnant at 60 days, with fawns born 120 (premature), 240 and 243 days after AI. These results were considered a model for the use of assisted reproductive techniques to conserve other critically endangered deer species of India.     

Nine novel microsatellite markers for the hog deer (Axis porcinus)

Hog deer (Axis porcinus) is listed as an endangered species in many countries and its taxonomic status remains ambiguous. In this study, we developed nine novel microsatellite markers using enrichment methods. These polymorphic microsatellite loci showed allele numbers of 2–3 with an average of 2.22 in a group of 26 individuals and observed and expected heterozygosity ranging from 0.044 to 0.619 (average 0.397) and 0.194 to 0.632 (average 0.433) respectively. Linkage disequilibrium was not detected. These markers could be used in the genetic study and taxonomic identification of this species.     

Warble flies (Hypodermatidae, Oestridae) of marals and axis deer of the Gorno-Altai

The paper considers diseases of marals and axis deer caused by warble flies as one of the factors affecting the deer-breeding productivity. Data on the infection rate of marals with larvae of Hypoderma diana and Pharynomyia picta and axis deer with H. diana are given.     

Aspects of breeding biology of chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) in the Western Ghats

Antler cycles are convenient external signs indicating internal changes in reproductive status of male deer. Antler phenology of chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Rusa unicolor) were studied in a deciduous habitat of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, using vehicle transects for 2 successive years. Apparent breeding seasonality occurred with the majority of adult stags in hard antlers from May to mid October in chital (>87 %), and October to May in sambar (>68 %). Adult hard antler in chital correlated with mean group size, while sambar showed a weak correlation between adult hard antler and group size. Chitals prefer forming large groups at forest edges and open habitats while sambars prefer dense vegetation cover. Adult hard antlers in chital and sambar showed a weak relation to fawning since most adult females were in oestrus during the peak rutting season. Adult hard antlers in chital associated positively with rainfall and day length while sambar responded weakly to rainfall. We conclude that environmental variables determined species-specific mating strategies in the two deer species.     

Elastic properties of the feet of deer (Cervidae)

Dynamic tests have been performed on the feet of deer, and on tendons removed from the feet, to determine their elastic properties. The results have been used to calculate the strain energy stored in each foot while it is on the ground in a fast galloping stride. This is compared with an estimate of the work done by the leg, and the energy-saving rle of tendon elasticity is assessed.     

Antler cycle and endocrine parameters in male axis deer (Axis axis): seasonal levels of LH, FSH, testosterone, and prolactin and results of GnRH and ACTH challenge tests.

1. Antler cycles of six adult male axis deer of southern Texas were relatively well synchronized within the herd. The old antlers were cast from December to March and regenerated antlers polished between March and June. The rutting season occurred in June and July. 2. LH and FSH exhibited little seasonal variation (LH 0.7-1.3 ng/ml; FSH 32-65 ng/ml). Prolactin levels were lowest in December (20 ng/ml) and highest in June (115 ng/ml). Testosterone concentrations exhibited a distinct seasonal pattern: minimum in December (0.1 ng/ml) and maximum in May (1.75 ng/ml). 3. After GnRH challenge (100 micrograms given i.m. in November), maximal LH levels (reached 40-60 min after injection), varied from 7.7 to 11.2 ng/ml, and T levels varied from 1.3 to 1.6 ng/ml. 4. Twenty I.U. of ACTH (given in March), elevated cortisol levels from 4-8 micrograms/dl (pretreatment) to 16-21 micrograms/dl (140 min post-administration).     

Morphometric comparison of the lumbar cancellous bone of sheep, deer, and humans

To investigate the feasibility of using deer and sheep as animal models for the human spine, we compared the microarchitectural dimensions of the deer and sheep spines and with human data. To this end, we adopted the traditional bone tissue morphometric method, using figure analysis software for quantitative analysis of 2D images of bone tissue. Compared with those of humans, the lumbar cancellous bone of deer and sheep has higher microarchitectural indices, more densely packed bone trabeculae, lower porosity, and higher bone mass. Despite specific differences in various morphologic indices, the anisotropy of lumbar cancellous bone in deer and sheep shows the same trend as that in humans.     

Mechanical properties of metaphyseal bone in the proximal femur

We used a three-point bending test to investigate the structural behavior of 123 rectangular flat plate specimens harvested from the metaphyseal shell of the cervical and intertrochanteric regions of five fresh/frozen human proximal femora. For comparison purposes, 36 specimens of similar geometry were also fabricated from bone of the femoral diaphysis. All specimens were oriented in either the local longitudinal or transverse directions. The mean longitudinal elastic modulus was 9650 +/- 2410 (SD) MPa and demonstrated a 24% decrease from that measured for the diaphysis (12500 +/- 2140 MPa) using the same testing technique. However, the transverse elastic moduli did not differ significantly between the proximal (5470 +/- 1720 MPa) and diaphyseal (5990 +/- 1520 MPa) specimens. The globally averaged values for the ultimate tensile strengths of the metaphyseal shell were 101 +/- 26 MPa in the longitudinal and 50 +/- 12 MPa in the transverse directions. These compared with diaphyseal values of 128 +/- 16 MPa and 47 +/- 12 MPa, respectively. While these differences were largely due to the reduced density of the proximal specimens, a slight decrease in transverse anisotropy for the proximal specimens was also noted by comparing the ratio of longitudinal to transverse moduli (1.76) and tensile strength (2.02) to the diaphyseal values (2.09 and 2.71, respectively). Use of these data should lead to improved performance of analytical models for the proximal femur, and thus help focus increased attention on the structural contribution of trabecular bone to the strength and rigidity of the proximal femur.     

Rumen Ciliates of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Axis Deer (Axis axis), Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) and Fallow Deer (Dama dama) from Texas

Samples of rumen contents from 33 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 31 axis deer (Axis axis), 26 sika deer (Cervus nippon), and 25 fallow deer (Dama dama) were collected from four study areas in central Texas. The geometric mean concentration of total protozoa was 50.2 x 10(4) per ml, with no differences between species (P > 0.36). White-tailed deer had a higher percentage of Entodinium and lower percentage of Diplodiniinae (P < 0.01) than the other deer species, which were not different from each other. Occurrence of Epidinium, Isotricha, and Dasytricha was sporadic and did not differ among deer species. Numerous new host records of protozoan species were observed: white-tailed deer--four; axis deer--five; sika deer--five; fallow deer--four. This brings the total number of protozoan species identified in each deer species to: white-tailed--eight; axis--12; sika--15; fallow--16. For all species combined, protozoan concentration were 7.5 to 11-fold higher (P < 0.01) from Area 4, which differed from the other three areas by having a stream that allowed deer to have free access to water. Criteria used for identification of medium-size Eudiplodinium species were evaluated.     

Mechanical properties of femoral trabecular bone in dogs

Background  

Studying mechanical properties of canine trabecular bone is important for a better understanding of fracture mechanics or bone disorders and is also needed for numerical simulation of canine femora. No detailed data about elastic moduli and degrees of anisotropy of canine femoral trabecular bone has been published so far, hence the purpose of this study was to measure the elastic modulus of trabecular bone in canine femoral heads by ultrasound testing and to assess whether assuming isotropy of the cancellous bone in femoral heads in dogs is a valid simplification.     

Mechanical properties of nacre and highly mineralized bone

We compared the mechanical properties of 'ordinary' bovine bone, the highly mineralized bone of the rostrum of the whale Mesoplodon densirostris, and mother of pearl (nacre) of the pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera. The rostrum and the nacre are similar in having very little organic material. However, the rostral bone is much weaker and more brittle than nacre, which in these properties is close to ordinary bone. The ability of nacre to outperform rostral bone is the result of its extremely well-ordered microstructure, with organic material forming a nearly continuous jacket round all the tiny aragonite plates, a design well adapted to produce toughness. In contrast, in the rostrum the organic material, mainly collagen, is poorly organized and discontinuous, allowing the mineral to join up to form, in effect, a brittle stony material.