河南灵井许昌人遗址动物骨骼表面人工改造痕迹

河南灵井许昌人遗址发掘出土了距今约10—8万年前的古人类头骨化石, 与头骨化石同层发现的还有大量哺乳动物化石及石制品等文化遗物。本文是对该遗址2005—2006年出土动物化石骨骼表面人工改造痕迹的观察分析结果。灵井遗址中13%的动物骨骼表面有人工切割痕的产生, 其中切割痕位于长骨骨干部位的约占此类标本总数的98.45%; 同时,在具切割痕的长骨类化石材料中,属于食草动物上部和中部肢骨的分别为34%和41%, 属于下部肢骨的则仅为25%。此外, 灵井动物群中具敲击痕、火烧痕迹、人工使用痕迹的骨骼标本分别占全部观察例数的4.2%、1%、1.32%。总之, 通过对动物骨骼表面保留的上述人工改造痕迹的观察与统计分析, 并与埋藏学实验及其他考古遗址相关属性的对比, 表明古人类是这一遗址中大量脊椎动物肉食资源的初级获取者和利用者, 他们是导致这一动物群聚集形成的主要埋藏学因素。同时, 许昌人遗址中大量破碎动物骨骼的出现可能也与古人类敲骨取髓的取食行为有着非常紧密的联系。     

Validation of bone surface modification models for inferring fossil hominin and carnivore feeding interactions, with reapplication to FLK 22, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Resolving the issue of how Early Stone Age hominins acquired large mammal carcasses requires information on their feeding interactions with large carnivores. This ecological information and its behavioral and evolutionary implications are revealed most directly from the tooth, cut, and percussion marks on bone surfaces generated by hominin and carnivore feeding activities. This paper employs a bootstrap method, a form of random resampling with replacement, to refine published neotaphonomic models that use the assemblage-wide proportions of long bones bearing feeding traces to infer the sequences in which Plio-Pleistocene hominins and carnivores accessed flesh, marrow, and/or grease from carcasses. Results validate the sensitivity of the models for inferring hominin feeding ecology, which have been questioned on grounds shown here to be unfounded. The bootstrapped feeding trace models are applied to the late Pliocene larger mammal fossil assemblage from FLK 22 (Zinjanthropus site), Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. High frequencies of tooth and percussion marking on long bone midshaft fragments from FLK 22 are most consistent with those feeding trace models that simulate hominin scavenging from carcasses defleshed by carnivores, while cut mark data indicate that hominins more often had access to upper forelimb flesh than upper hind limb flesh. Together, the bone surface modification data indicate that hominins typically gained secondary access to partially defleshed carnivore kills, but they also allow for the possibility of some carcasses being processed only by carnivores and only by hominins.     

Stature estimation from complete long bones in the Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain)

Systematic excavations at the site of the Sima de los Huesos (SH) in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) have allowed us to reconstruct 27 complete long bones of the human species Homo heidelbergensis. The SH sample is used here, together with a sample of 39 complete Homo neanderthalensis long bones and 17 complete early Homo sapiens (Skhul/Qafzeh) long bones, to compare the stature of these three different human species. Stature is estimated for each bone using race- and sex-independent regression formulae, yielding an average stature for each bone within each taxon. The mean length of each long bone from SH is significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the corresponding mean values in the Neandertal sample. The stature has been calculated for male and female specimens separately, averaging both means to calculate a general mean. This general mean stature for the entire sample of long bones is 163.6 cm for the SH hominins, 160.6 cm for Neandertals and 177.4 cm for early modern humans. Despite some overlap in the ranges of variation, all mean values in the SH sample (whether considering isolated bones, the upper or lower limb, males or females or more complete individuals) are larger than those of Neandertals. Given the strong relationship between long bone length and stature, we conclude that SH hominins represent a slightly taller population or species than the Neandertals. However, compared with living European Mediterranean populations, neither the Sima de los Huesos hominins nor the Neandertals should be considered ‘short’ people. In fact, the average stature within the genus Homo seems to have changed little over the course of the last two million years, since the appearance of Homo ergaster in East Africa. It is only with the emergence of H. sapiens, whose earliest representatives were ‘very tall’, that a significant increase in stature can be documented.     

Lower limb bone structure of Middle Pleistocene hominins from the Caune de l’Arago (Tautavel,France): Evolutionary and functional comparison with the penecontemporaneous hominins of Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca,Spain)

The Caune de l’Arago (Arago) and Sima de los Huesos (Sima) human bones from the European Middle Pleistocene are penecontemporaneous, although the Sima hominins are closely related to Neandertal, and Arago hominins present more archaic features. In previous and in press studies, the cross-sectional geometric properties (CSG) of lower limb bones of Arago and Sima have been studied separately without comparative analyses. Here, in order to bridge this gap, we use the same criteria for both samples to highlight evolutionary affinities and to compare their level and pattern of mobility. This study focuses on the femur, fibula and tibia from Arago and Sima with references to fossils from the sites of Trinil, Zhoukoudian and Lazaret, and ancient and recent Homo sapiens (including athletes and non-athletes). We analyze the cross-sectional areas, biomechanical bone “shape” indices (Ix/Iy, Imax/Imin) and pattern of cortical bone distribution. All lower limb bones from Arago have noticeably high to very high relative cortical areas and low to very low medullary areas. The overall femoral pattern in Arago, like Sima, is similar to that of Middle Pleistocene hominins (e.g., low femoral shape indices, Ix/Iy) and Neandertals (e.g., large cross-sectional size). However, the femoral midshaft in Sima presents prominent posteromedial cortical thickening, as a result of a spiral cortical reinforcement along the medial side of the diaphysis. This characteristic is specific to Neandertal and some Middle Pleistocene hominins. In contrast, the midshaft femoral pattern in Arago is close to that of some Homo erectus. We also note that the femoral cross-sectional size and relative cortical area in Arago differ drastically to the small size and low relative cortical area of Lazaret and Trinil hominins. The very high shape index at midshaft (i.e., high Imax/Imin) of the Arago tibia is observed in ancient H. sapiens and runners; the tibial posterior “pilaster” is found in Neandertals and ancient H. sapiens; and the flat or convex tibial faces are similar to Neandertals. Furthermore, the Arago fibulas show marked fibular posterolateral cortical reinforcement with low anteroposterior strengthening. These leg features (tibia, fibula) are also found in some Sima hominins (but not in all individuals). Consequently, this study confirms the presence of archaic features in Arago and the close evolutionary relationship between Sima and Neandertal. This proposition is mainly based on the femoral midshaft pattern influenced by the pelvofemoral complex, considered to be substantially genetically controlled. The leg functional analysis highlights a high level of mobility and travelling in uneven terrains or in mountainous areas in Arago, consistent with known environments and hunting practices. Previously, an analogous hypothesis was proposed put forward for Sima hominins.     

First Partial Skeleton of a 1.34-Million-Year-Old Paranthropus boisei from Bed II,Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania

Recent excavations in Level 4 at BK (Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) have yielded nine hominin teeth, a distal humerus fragment, a proximal radius with much of its shaft, a femur shaft, and a tibia shaft fragment (cataloged collectively as OH 80). Those elements identified more specifically than to simply Hominidae gen. et sp. indet are attributed to Paranthropus boisei. Before this study, incontrovertible P. boisei partial skeletons, for which postcranial remains occurred in association with taxonomically diagnostic craniodental remains, were unknown. Thus, OH 80 stands as the first unambiguous, dentally associated Paranthropus partial skeleton from East Africa. The morphology and size of its constituent parts suggest that the fossils derived from an extremely robust individual who, at 1.338±0.024 Ma (1 sigma), represents one of the most recent occurrences of Paranthropus before its extinction in East Africa.     

Taphonomic analysis of the early Pleistocene (2.4 Ma) faunal assemblage from A.L. 894 (Hadar, Ethiopia)

The A.L. 894 site (Hadar, Ethiopia) is, together with OGS 7 (Gona, Ethiopia), one of the oldest archaeological sites documenting a spatial association of stone tools and bones retrieved from an in situ excavation. In contrast with OGS 7, the better preservation of the bone assemblage at A.L. 894 allows the identification of taphonomic processes of bone breakage, thanks to abundant green bone fractures. The presence of tooth marks and the lack of hominin-produced bone modifications together argue against hominins as the responsible agents for bone accumulation and modification. This taphonomic study of A.L. 894 shows lack of evidence for functional associations between stone tools and bones, a pattern documented in several other early Pleistocene sites. Such a pattern underscores the complex phenomena involved in site formation processes, especially in the earliest archaeological assemblages     

Taphonomic perspectives on hominid site use and foraging strategies during Bed II times at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

The faunal assemblages excavated by Mary Leakey in Bed II of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, have, like the more well-known Bed I assemblages, traditionally been interpreted as the result of hominid butchering activities in the lake margin and riverine settings of the paleo-Olduvai Basin. A reexamination of all of Leakey's Bed I sites has shown that hominids played little or no role in the formation of all but one of those faunal assemblages, a finding that prompted the reanalysis of the Bed II sites presented here. We expand upon a previous taphonomic study that provided systematic data for HWK East Levels 1–2, MNK Main, and BK. In addition to these assemblages, we provide data on HWK East Levels 3–5, FC West, TK, and SHK. Our data contradict previous interpretations of MNK Main as a hominid accumulation but uphold the contention that BK represents a primarily hominid accumulation reflecting early access to carcasses. The small and poorly preserved assemblages from FC West and TK are difficult to link unambiguously to either hominids or carnivores. Site MNK Main and HWK East Levels 3–5 appear to be death arenas where carcasses accumulated via natural deaths and/or serial predation. Site SHK is severely biased by selective retention and therefore little can be said of its formational history. Nevertheless, no hominid modifications were documented in this assemblage. Comparisons with other Olduvai sites indicate a more conspicuous hyena taphonomic signal during Bed II times than Bed I times, which appears to mirror the changing configuration of the large carnivore guild. These findings also beg the question of what activities were being carried out by hominids with the stone tools discarded at these sites. Although it seems clear that hominids were utilizing stone tools to carry out subsistence activities unrelated to carcass butchery, more excavation and techniques such as phytolith analysis should be employed to explore alternative explanations.     

The puzzle from JK2—A femur and a tibial fragment (O.H.34) from Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania

During excavations in Bed III, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in 1962, a slender fossil femur and part of a tibial shaft were recovered. Their strange appearance resulted in their neglect for many years. Anatomical examination now confirms that these bones are hominid, probably hominine, yet distorted in form. The distortion does not appear to be the result of pathology but due to damage and abrasion while in the deposits; deposits dated at approximately 1 million years B.P. O.H. 34 is the first hominid to be recovered from Bed III, Olduvai Gorge.     

Long-distance carcass transport at Olduvai Gorge? A quantitative examination of Bed I skeletal element abundances

Relative abundances of skeletal elements at Plio-Pleistocene archaeological sites have long been interpreted to represent selective transport of portions of large prey. Models from optimal foraging theory suggest that the degree of carcass transport selectivity reflects transport constraints, particularly transport distance. A quantitative analysis of skeletal element abundances in five bone assemblages from Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, indicates that within the subset of elements most likely to resist attritional processes, there is no evidence for preferential transport of small or large mammals. The results suggest relatively low carcass transport costs and are most consistent with site formation models favoring short-distance carcass transport. The data are also consistent with the possibility that hominins were not responsible for transporting bones at some sites. Several Bed I assemblages, with the exception of FLK-Zinjanthropus, lack evidence of a functional relationship between flaked stone artifacts and the faunal remains, such as cut-marks or percussion-marks on bone. In conjunction with the skeletal part data, this suggests that hominin involvement with the bone assemblages was minimal at all sites but FLK-Zinjanthropus. The patterning at Bed I contrasts strongly with Middle Stone Age and Middle Paleolithic assemblages, which provide clear evidence for selective transport, suggesting higher transport costs and longer transport distances.     

Systematic butchering of fallow deer (Dama) at the early middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Israel)

Three assemblages of fallow deer (Dama sp.) bones excavated from the early middle Pleistocene (oxygen isotope stage 18) layers of the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, furnish evidence of systematic and repeated exploitation of complete carcasses by hominins. The excellent state of preservation of the bones and the presence of only minimal signs of carnivore involvement permit an investigation of the role of hominins as the primary agents responsible for the damage to these bones. Hominin expertise in dealing with fallow deer carcasses is manifested by cut marks, percussion marks, and hack marks on the bones. The archaeozoological analysis of the anatomical position and frequency of these marks suggests that carcass processing followed systematic practices that reflect an in-depth knowledge of fallow deer anatomy and a consistent behavioral strategy. These assemblages represent one of the earliest examples of methodological butchering practices in Eurasia. The evidence of carcass processing observed at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov resembles that seen in late Pleistocene sites in Israel, which were inhabited by modern humans. We interpret the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov data as indicating that the Acheulian hunters at the site (1) were proficient communicators and learners and (2) possessed anatomical knowledge, considerable manual skill, impressive technological abilities, and foresight.     

Descriptions of the upper limb skeleton of Homo floresiensis

Several bones of the upper extremity were recovered during excavations of Late Pleistocene deposits at Liang Bua, Flores, and these have been attributed to Homo floresiensis. At present, these upper limb remains have been assigned to six different individuals - LB1, LB2, LB3, LB4, LB5, and LB6. Several of these bones are complete or nearly so, but some are quite fragmentary. All skeletal remains recovered from Liang Bua were extremely fragile, but have now been stabilized and hardened in the laboratory in Jakarta. They are now curated in museum-quality containers at the National Research and Development Centre for Archaeology in Jakarta, Indonesia. These skeletal remains are described and illustrated photographically. The upper limb presents a unique mosaic of derived (human-like) and primitive morphologies, the combination of which is never found in either healthy or pathological modern humans.     

New fossils of Eucladoceros boulei (Artiodactyla,Mammalia) from Early Pleistocene Nihewan Beds,China

Recent excavations at Shanshenmiaozui site in Nihewan Basin of North China uncovered a rich collection of comb-antlered deer, which includes the first discovery of the yearling antler, complete upper and lower dentitions (both deciduous and permanent), associated limb bones including the longest metapodials ever recovered. Based on toothrow length and the dental characters as well as the postcranial bones, the new fossil materials can be referred to Eucladoceros boulei that is estimated to be 350 kg and represents the largest Pleistocene cervid ever recovered in China. Besides the large size, E. boulei is also characterized by the pronounced anterior cingulids and entostylid ribs on lower molars as well as the moderately pachyostosed mandibles. The present study shows that the body weight of large cervids can be estimated by the length of toothrow and metacarpal, with exception for Cervus elaphus, which has larger toothrow length, but shorter metacarpal and smaller body size. E. boulei is a typical element of the Early Pleistocene fauna in northern China. The early Villafranchian is a bottleneck period for cervid evolution in northern China, which is characterized by the following features: decrease of cervid diversity, disappearance of archaic groups, and the rise of the medium to large-sized three-tined cervini taxa. The sudden appearance of the very large and/or multi-tined cervids at the Pliocene–Pleistocene transition may represent a great migration event of mammals. The Early Pleistocene cervids from Nihewan Basin are very diverse, and are in need of more taxonomic work.     

Environments and hominin activities across the FLK Peninsula during Zinjanthropus times (1.84 Ma), Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

We establish through 13 excavations the landscape context and nature of hominin activities across the Zinjanthropus land surface from which the Leakeys recovered the FLK 22 and FLK NN 1 paleoanthropological assemblages. The land surface was created by fluvial incision of the eastern margin of paleo-Lake Olduvai following a major lake withdrawal. Erosion was uneven, leaving a peninsula bounded by a river channel, the FLK Fault, and a freshwater wetland. This FLK Peninsula supported groves of trees that attracted hominins and carnivores, and that preserved the dense concentrations of carcass remains and stone tools they left behind, including those at FLK 22. Some carcasses appear to have been acquired at the ecotone of the Peninsula and Wetland, where another dense artifact and bone assemblage accumulated. A lesser topographic high at the edge of a Typha marsh in the Wetland was the site of FLK NN 1 and a scatter of large stone tools used possibly for rootstock processing.Our landscape reconstruction delimits the vegetation mosaic indicated by previous work and provides a topographical explanation for the existence of FLK 22 and FLK NN 1. Both are unexpected if the FLK area was the flat, featureless lake margin terrain typical of lake basins similar to paleo-Olduvai. The results show that the Leakeys’ sites were not isolated occupation floors but rather parts of a land surface utilized intensively by hominins. Although commonly considered to have been home bases, their likely high predation risk, evidenced by large carnivore feeding traces and the remains of four hominin individuals, suggests visits to them were brief and limited to feeding. Finally, stratigraphic observations confirm that FLK NN 3 accumulated on an older land surface, refuting the hypothesis that the OH 8 foot found there is the same individual as the OH 35 leg from FLK 22.     

Olduvai Hominin 8 foot pathology: A comparative study attempting a differential diagnosis

Olduvai Hominin (OH) 8, a 1.76 million year old left foot skeleton, has osteophytic lipping on the metatarsal bases, which when compared to a modern sample, may help paleoanthropologists determine whether the foot bones represent an injured subadult or an osteoarthritic adult. This study compares the OH 8 lipping pattern to those of 140 individual Amerindians comprising four different age classes to determine whether the OH 8 lipping is likely to be age-related osteoarthritis. OH 8 metatarsal lipping followed a pattern similar to that determined in the comparative sample to be age-related osteoarthritis. Similarities include metatarsal base lipping that is frequently located on the dorsal surface, metatarsal base lipping that is more severe on the lateral metatarsals compared to the medial metatarsals, and the presence of a pseudojoint between metatarsal 1 and metatarsal 2. The chance of finding an individual with osteoarthritis lipping increases from 3.45% in the age group 18–22 years to 55% in individuals over 35 years. The chance of finding a pseudojoint increases from 1.32% in non-osteoarthritic individuals to 15.15% in individuals with osteoarthritis. Results from this study indicate that the OH 8 foot bones are most likely from an adult and more likely to belong to Paranthropus boisei, the skull of which was found in the same excavations with OH 8, than to the juvenile Homo habilis holotype.     

Adaptation to bipedal gait and fifth metatarsal structural properties in Australopithecus,Paranthropus, and Homo

Humans, unlike African apes, have relatively robust fifth metatarsals (Mt5) presumably reflecting substantial weight-bearing and stability function in the lateral column of the former. When this morphological difference emerged during hominin evolution is debated. Here we investigate internal diaphyseal structure of Mt5s attributed to Australopithecus (from Sterkfontein), Paranthropus (from Swartkrans), and Homo (from Olduvai, Dmanisi, and Dinaledi) placed in the context of human and African ape Mt5 internal diaphyseal structure. ‘Whole-shaft’ properties were evaluated from 17 cross sections sampling 25% to 75% diaphyseal length using computed tomography. To assess structural patterns, scaled cortical bone thicknesses (sCBT) and scaled second moments of area (sSMA) were visualized and evaluated through penalized discriminant analyses. While the majority of fossil hominin Mt5s exhibited ape-like sCBT, their sSMA were comparatively more human-like. Human-like functional loading of the lateral column existed in at least some fossil hominins, although perhaps surprisingly not in hominins from Dmanisi or Dinaledi.     

The Olduvai Hominid 8 foot: Adult or subadult?

Olduvai Hominid 8 (OH 8), an articulating set of fossil hominin tarsal and metatarsal bones, is critical to interpretations of the evolution of hominin pedal morphology and bipedal locomotion. It has been suggested that OH 8 may represent the foot of a subadult and may be associated with the OH 7 mandible, the type specimen of Homo habilis. This assertion is based on the presence of what may be unfused distal metatarsal epiphyses. Accurately assessing the skeletal maturity of the OH 8 foot is important for interpretations of the functional morphology and locomotor behavior of Plio-Pleistocene hominins. In this study, we compare metatarsal fusion patterns and internal bone morphology of the lateral metatarsals among subadult hominines (85 modern humans, 48 Pan, and 25 Gorilla) to assess the likelihood that OH 8 belonged to either an adult or subadult hominin. Our results suggest that if OH 8 is indeed from a subadult, then it displays a metatarsal developmental pattern that is unobserved in our comparative sample. In OH 8, the fully fused base of the first metatarsal and the presence of trabecular bone at the distal ends of the second and third metatarsal shafts make it highly improbable that it belonged to a subadult, let alone a subadult that matches the developmental age of the OH 7 mandible. In total, the results of this study suggest that the OH 8 foot most likely belonged to an adult hominin.     

Des traces de boucherie aux outils lithiques de Masol (Pliocène supérieur,Inde du Nord). Une approche psychomotrice de l’origine et de l’identité des hominiens

Masol is a geological formation located in the Northwestern Himalayan foothills. The lithostratigraphy attributed to the Late Pliocene was confirmed as early as the 1960s by faunal assemblage of the fossiliferous deposits called the Quranwala zone and then by paleomagnetism. The geomorphology is an inlier, incised around a part of the axis of the Chandigarh anticlinal which began to form 600,000 years ago. The UMR 7194 CNRS and the Society for Archaeological and Anthropological Research, Chandigarh, have conduct fieldworks in this area from 2007 to 2019, during which lithic artifacts and fossil bones with butchery marks were collected regularly and exclusively on the fossiliferous outcrops whose the Late Pliocene age is indisputable. Finally, the first chopper in place was extracted in 2017 in the deepest layer of the Quranwala zone. Ten years of geological studies over 50 hectares of silts and sandstones eroded annually, have consolidated the relevance of the Late Pliocene age of more than 300 artifacts scattered on both sides of the anticline axis. This dispersion is consistent with that of the butchery marks and makes Masol an exceptional site of human occupation by its extent and its duration, from the base of the Quranwala zone (at least 2.8 Ma) to its youngest layers, that corresponds to 50 meters of regular deposits. Here, we recall the geomorphology, the intentional origin of the cut marks and the lithic techno-typology of Masol collection 2008–2017, homogeneous and similar to the industry of Longgupo site in South China dated 2.5 Ma. Then we discuss the identity of the hominins on the basis of technical behaviors and subsistence strategies, the reasoned exploitation of carcasses and gestures, and the paleoenvironment. The whole is analyzed in the evolutionary perspective of a “cerebro-cerebellar” complexification Rubicon involved in the verticality of the brainstem and spinal cord specific to hominids.     

Some African fossil foot bones: a note on the interpolation of fossils into a matrix of extant species

Certain fossil foot bones (a terminal toe phalanx from Olduvai, specimens of tali from Spy, Skhūl, Olduvai, Kromdraai, Songhor and Rusinga) have been investigated by other workers using the multivariate statistical approach. The conclusions of their studies have, in the main, been based upon examination of early canonical variates alone. It is demonstrated here that if the full analyses (generalized distances) are taken into account, then almost exactly opposite conclusions obtain. The terminal toe phalanx from Olduvai is widely different from those of modern men; the Neandertal tali differ more from modern human bones than previously realized; the specimens from Olduvai, Kromdraai, Songhor and Rusinga are all completely dissimilar from both African ape and modern human tali.     

The 'human revolution' in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)

Recent research in Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia suggests that we can no longer assume a direct and exclusive link between anatomically modern humans and behavioral modernity (the 'human revolution'), and assume that the presence of either one implies the presence of the other: discussions of the emergence of cultural complexity have to proceed with greater scrutiny of the evidence on a site-by-site basis to establish secure associations between the archaeology present there and the hominins who created it. This paper presents one such case study: Niah Cave in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, famous for the discovery in 1958 in the West Mouth of the Great Cave of a modern human skull, the 'Deep Skull,' controversially associated with radiocarbon dates of ca. 40,000 years before the present. A new chronostratigraphy has been developed through a re-investigation of the lithostratigraphy left by the earlier excavations, AMS-dating using three different comparative pre-treatments including ABOX of charcoal, and U-series using the Diffusion-Absorption model applied to fragments of bones from the Deep Skull itself. Stratigraphic reasons for earlier uncertainties about the antiquity of the skull are examined, and it is shown not to be an 'intrusive' artifact. It was probably excavated from fluvial-pond-desiccation deposits that accumulated episodically in a shallow basin immediately behind the cave entrance lip, in a climate that ranged from times of comparative aridity with complete desiccation, to episodes of greater surface wetness, changes attributed to regional climatic fluctuations. Vegetation outside the cave varied significantly over time, including wet lowland forest, montane forest, savannah, and grassland. The new dates and the lithostratigraphy relate the Deep Skull to evidence of episodes of human activity that range in date from ca. 46,000 to ca. 34,000 years ago. Initial investigations of sediment scorching, pollen, palynomorphs, phytoliths, plant macrofossils, and starch grains recovered from existing exposures, and of vertebrates from the current and the earlier excavations, suggest that human foraging during these times was marked by habitat-tailored hunting technologies, the collection and processing of toxic plants for consumption, and, perhaps, the use of fire at some forest-edges. The Niah evidence demonstrates the sophisticated nature of the subsistence behavior developed by modern humans to exploit the tropical environments that they encountered in Southeast Asia, including rainforest.