二化螟种群密度的克力格估值及其模拟抽样

为设计可靠合理的二化螟幼虫种群密度抽样方案,从二化螟幼虫空间分布原始总体出发,另构建了一个随机总体和一个顺序总体,采用无放回随机抽样、间隔变程以上无放回随机抽样和基于克力格估值且初始点随机的顺序抽样对3总体进行了模拟抽样比较．结果表明,间隔变程以上随机抽样对原始总体平均数的估计优于随机抽样,且随总体聚集程度增加,间隔变程以上随机抽样愈优;正确识别种群空间格局极为重要,对聚集分布总体采用随机抽样和对随机分布总体采用间隔变程以上随机抽样均将降低抽样估计精度．针对随机抽样在应用上的局限性,提出了一种基于地统计学克力格估值、初始点随机的顺序抽样方案：它以初始点随机保证随机性,以顺序抽样保证可操作性,以二化螟种群空间分布的区域变量属性保证克力格样本较调查样本对局域样本和总体的平均数估计为优;且聚集范围一定时,总体聚集强度愈大,克力格样本局域估计和全局估计愈优于调查样本;取样间隔(以变程为标准)极为重要,样方的空间布局要平衡考虑相互独立的样方对数和变程范围内的样方对数。     

The species-area relation II. A second model for continuous sampling

A second mathematical model describing the species-area relation was proposed for continuous expanding of sample area. This model is expressed as S=λ ln(1+x/E) where S is the number of species occurring in an area x, and λ and E are the constants termed specific diversity and elemental area respectively. As a result of testing the validity of the model for several sets of data, it was shown that the above equation would provide an adequate fit to a group of species belonging to a single synusia which exists in an open habitat. The ecological implications of parameters involved were discussed and the characteristic area presented previously (Kobayashi , 1974) was defined in terms of E. The relation between results obtained by discrete sampling and continuous sampling was examined and the possibility of converting one to another was suggested.     

Sampling procedures and species estimation: testing the effectiveness of herbarium data against vegetation sampling in an oceanic island

Questions: What is the relationship between species assemblages in herbarium collections and species abundances in the field, and how trustworthy are herbarium data in vegetation science? Location: Guadalupe Island, Baja California, Mexico. Methods: We compared species‐abundance distribution and evenness in 110 vegetation plots in Guadalupe Island against data from four herbaria. We tested whether the relative frequencies derived from herbarium specimens differed significantly from species frequencies in the field. We compared the rarefaction curves for both field and herbarium data sets, and tested whether taxonomic collectors accumulated new species at a higher rate than that observed in ecological plot sampling. Results: At any given sampling effort, the total number of observed species was higher in herbarium data. The relative abundance of common species in the field was higher, and the evenness of the distribution was lower, than in herbarium data. There was no significant correlation between species abundances in the field and in the herbaria. By selectively targeting rare species, collectors accumulate previously unseen species much faster than through ecological sampling. Conclusions: Because collectors aim for the rarer species and avoid the more common ones, the relative abundance of species in herbarium collections cannot be interpreted as a predictor of their true abundance in the field. Any statistical procedure that requires the sample to be representative of the true abundance distribution is likely to show errors when applied to herbarium data. However, because collectors actively search for rare species their rate of species accumulation is higher and their floristic lists are more complete than those obtained through ecological field sampling.     

Small Sample Bias and Variance of Lincoln-Petersen and Bailey Estimators

The Lincoln-Petersen and Bailey estimators of an unknown population size were compared in a computer simulation of capture-recapture sampling with replacement from small populations. The Bailey estimator was negatively biased and had smaller variance than the Petersen estimator. The Petersen estimator tended to be positively biased. The Lincoln-Petersen variance estimator tended to be positively biased while the Bailey variance estimator was negatively biased.     

Development of an optimal sampling protocol for millipedes (Diplopoda)

This study determined a millipede sampling protocol that was efficient, replicable, and thorough, by testing commonly used methods (pitfall trapping, hand collection, and leaf litter collection with Berlese extraction) at sites where the fauna had been intensively sampled, so that the results of different sampling protocols (‘experimental sampling’) could be compared to the previously known fauna of each site (determined by ‘baseline sampling’). Two methods of collecting leaf litter were compared. One method allowed the collector to choose the locations from which to sample leaf litter, while the second method used randomly generated locations. Experimental sampling took place at both an upland site (Swallow Cliff Woods, Cook Co, IL) and a wetland site (Cedarburg Bog, Ozaukee Co, WI) where reliable baseline data was available. The optimal protocol for millipedes was found to consist of a combination of the hand collection and the a priori litter methods. In studies where there are constraints on time or resources devoted to sampling or processing, this protocol can be reduced to the single most effective method, hand collection. Overall, the a priori litter collection method was more effective than the random litter collection method.     

A quantitative method for determining the efficacy of algicides in industrial cooling towers

Summary Quantitative sampling of periphyton from natural substrates is difficult and uncommon due to the nonhomogenous and irregular nature of most natural substrates. This paper describes an experimentally verified method for quantitative sampling of periphyton directly from the relatively homogenous and regular upper deck of a cooling tower.     

Studies on the spatial distribution pattern of larvae of the mosquito,Anopheles sinensis,in rice fields

The spatial distribution patterns of the population of Anopheles sinensis larvae were studied in the rice field area in the suburb of Urawa city in Japan, during the summer seasons in 1973 and 1974. The distribution pattern of the larval population within the field, analysed by the m−m regression method, indicated that the basic component of larval distribution was not a group of individuals but a single individual and such components were distributed contagiously over the field. This basic pattern did not change significantly according to developmental stage, census date or field. Therefore, we could describe the distribution pattern of the population in a rice field by the single linear regression, x=0.021+1.339x(r²−0.912). Also, the relation for the whole population in the field area including the five fields could be shown by the linear regression, x=0.049+1.749x(r²−0.959). The value of α remained to be nearly equal to zero, but the value of β became larger than the value for the single-field relation. Such a change in distribution pattern seemed to reflect the greater heterogeneity in conditions among the fields than within individual field. Using the information on the distribution patterns mentioned above, some considerations were given on the sampling plans for mosquito larvae, including samplesize determination and application of sequential methods to estimate population size as well as to classify population level.     

Implications of changes in arthropod distribution following chemical application

The influence of pesticide application on the within-field distribution of arthropods was investigated for Tetranychus urticae, the twospotted spider mite, on strawberries. Analyses of dispersions based onGreen's coefficient,Iwao's regression of mean crowding on the mean, andTaylor's power law all indicated that mite populations were highly aggregated initially. As densities increased, more of the avialable niches were filled, leading to a less clumped dispersion. However, pesticide applications causing greater than 99.9% mortality acted in a nearly density independant fashion and, although the originating populations were similar in number, did not produce dispersions equivalent to the initial migrants. As a result, ignoring these changes by developing sampling plans based on dispersion indices which generated a single slope for an entire data set, led to statistical errors that invalidated the sampling programs. In order to accurately reflect the field biology of the spidermites, sampling plans for pre and post-treatment populations were substantially different. The impact of such changes in dispersion were graphically demonstrated using both sequential and binomial sampling techniques. Both methods showed that fewer samples were necessary to estimate densities at a given precision level for post-treatment populations. Also, these techniques indicated that post-treatment populations had similar, but significantly different, dispersions. The implications of changes in pre and post-treatment dispersions, as well as problems associated with inconsistant dispersions following pesticide use, are discussed.     

Distribution-abundance relationship for passerines breeding in Tunisian oases: test of the sampling hypothesis

The positive relationship between local abundance and distribution of species is a widely recognized pattern in community ecology. However, it has been suggested that this relationship can simply be an artefact of sampling because locally rare species are less detectable then locally abundant ones, and hence their distribution can easily be underestimated. Here, we use count data to investigate the relationship between distribution and abundance of passerines breeding in a sample of oases from southern Tunisia, and we provide a test of the sampling artefact hypothesis. In particular, we checked for a difference in detection probability between localized and widespread species, and we tested if increasing the sampling effort affects the significance of the relationship. A significant positive relationship between the average local abundance of passerine species and the proportion of occupied oases was found. The use of a capture-recapture approach allowed us to estimate and to compare the detection probabilities of localized and widespread species subsets. We found that localized species were locally less detectable than widespread species, which is consistent with the main assumption of the sampling artefact hypothesis. However, increasing the detection probability of species by conducting more counts did not affect the significance of the relationship, which did not give support to the sampling artefact hypothesis. Our work implies that sampling contributed to the distribution-abundance relationship we found, but that it is unlikely that such a relationship could entirely be explained by an artefact of sampling. It also underlines the insight that can be gained by using probabilistic approaches of estimating species number and detection probability when attempting to disentangle sampling from ecological effects in community ecology studies.     

A new method of sequential sampling to obtain the population estimates with a fixed level of precision

A simple method of sequential sampling is developed which would make it automatically possible to secure, without excess sampling, a predetermined level of precision for a series of population estimates being required. It appears to have wide application to sampling field populations under various situations since it is simply based upon the relationship of variance to mean for which a comprehensive formula deduced for biological populations from the linearity in the regression of mean crowding on mean density could be adopted. Some problems that may arise in practical application of the method are also discussed.     

昆虫种群调查抽样方法的几点探讨

本文对昆虫种群调查常用抽样方法的局限性和改进方法进行了探讨,提出了作者的新见解。     

Evaluation of statistical precision and design of efficient sampling for the population estimation based on frequency of occurrence

The binomial sampling to estimate population density of an organism based simply upon the frequency of its occurrence among sampled quadrats is a labour-saving technique which is potentially useful for small animals like insects and has actually been applied occasionally to studies of their populations. The present study provides a theoretical basis for this convenient technique, which makes it statistically reliable and tolerable for consistent use in intensive as well as preliminary population censuses. Firs, the magnitude of sampling error in relation to sample size is formulated mathematically for the estimate to be obtained by this indirect method of census, using either of the two popular models relating frequency of occurrence (p) to mean density (m), i.e. the negative binomial model, p=1−(1+m/k)^−k, and the empirical model, p=1−exp(−am^b). Then, the equations to calculate sample size and census cost that are necessary to attain a given desired level of precision in the estimation are derived for both models. A notable feature of the relationship of necessary sample size (or census cost) to mean density in the frequency method, in constrast to that in the ordinary census, is that it shows a concave curve which tends to rise sharply not only towards lower but also towards higher levels of density. These theoretical results make it also possible to design sequential estimation procedures based on this convenient census technique, which may enable us with the least necessary cost to get a series of population estimates with the desired precision level. Examples are presented to explain how to apply these programs to acutal censuses in the field.