Labor specialization and the formation of markets for food in a Shipibo subsistence economy

Traditionally, the Shipibo economy was subsistence-based with shifting cultivation supplying calories, principally in the form of plantains and root crops, while fishing and hunting provided animal proteins to the diet. Some men, who recently began producing rice for sale in regional markets, now allocate less time to wild food procurement. Moreover, this trend has been accompanied by the nucleation of households, a growing cash market for agricultural labor, and the intravillage sale of faunal foods. This paper shows that with cash cropping, some Shipibo now freely distribute less food to others in relation to the amount they produce. To account for this change, a theory is developed based on time allocation and patterns of economic behavior reported throughout the Amazon. This theory is then applied to explain specialization and the formation of cash markets for food labor among the Shipibo.     

The Scientific Basis for Shipibo Soil Classification and Land Use: Changes in Soil-Plant Associations with Cash Cropping

Since the Shipibo began cash cropping rice, their land use patterns have changed with proportionately less utilization of soft sandy soils, which are best for staple Musa production, and greater use of harder clayey soils, which are more suitable for rice and root crops. Statistical analysis of soil samples reveals the physical-chemical basis for Shipibo soil categories and indicates the effect ofswidden agriculture on levels of important soil characteristics. While cultural principles for planting have summarized these important ecological relationships in the past, they are often violated with increasing rice production. Examination of time allocation and food consumption data shows that changes in Shipibo land use patterns are associated with higher labor costs during brief periods of the agricultural cycle and greater dependence on domesticated animal foods.     

Hunting and fishing focus among the Miskito Indians,eastern Nicaragua

The amounts of native animals taken in hunting and fishing by Amerind peoples are almost unknown. The interrelationships of cultural and ecological systems determine to a large extent hunting and fishing returns, focus, and strategies. This study presents data obtained in a coastal Miskito Indian village in eastern Nicaragua. Measurements were made of meat yields by species and of the time and distance inputs involved in securing fish and game. Hunting and fishing focus and strategies are adaptive mechanisms enabling the Miskito to achieve high and dependable returns from a limited number of species. Several factors are examined which influence hunting and fishing focus: dietary preferences and prohibitions, costs involved, differential productivity and dependability of particular species, seasonality and scheduling, and the impact of cash market opportunities for faunal resources. Under the impetus of population growth and rising aspirations, the Miskito's efforts to secure increasing numbers of animals for both subsistence and market are leading to severe pressures on selected species and to cultural and ecological disruptions.This study is part of a larger project on Miskito subsistence ecology carried out in 1968–1969 with a grant from the Foreign Area Fellowship Program. Additional data were obtained May through August 1971, supported by a Social Science Research Council grant.     

Women and development: A highland New Guinea example

This paper presents an analysis of household variables and their relationship to success in cash cropping among the Gainj of Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. Censuses and household surveys from 1978, the year in which cash cropping began, and 1983 provide data that show different patterns of change in household structure for more and less commercially successful households. The results illustrate the importance of women's labor in economic development and the dynamic nature of the relationship between household structure and economic development.     

Biodiversity conservation and cash crop development in northern Thailand

This study examines some of the implications of increased cash croppingfor wildlife in the highlands of northern Thailand. Through in-depth study of twoHmong villages and interviews in several others, information was collectedregarding cash crop adoption patterns, comparisons between various cash crops interms of inputs and yields and trends in land use change and hunting behaviour.The results show that the newer cash crops, cabbage and carnations inparticular, have greater abilities to support larger human populations per unitland area and thereby reduce pressure for increased land clearing. However,strong concerns remain regarding the chemical inputs used on thesecrops. Since the adoption of cash cropping, hunting frequency has declined. Interviewees provided seven reasons, withthe time requirements for cash crop tending being the main one. Hunting isstill practiced but largely for social rather than economic reasons. Oneexception is the regular hunting of small animals by opium addicts. Others nowhave sufficient money to be able to buy meat. Hunters span all economic classes.Hunting now plays a reduced social role in the society. In general, the youngergeneration has reduced knowledge of the forest environment. No support was foundfor the hypothesis that cash cropping had reduced village regulations onhunting, as few such regulations exist amongst the Hmong. This study suggeststhat there may be advantages to biodiversity conservation from cash cropping inthe highlands of SE Asia and confirms the much broader scope that conservationscientists must embrace in order to understand all the factors that mightinfluence biodiversity in a region.     

Neanderthal use of fish, mammals, birds, starchy plants and wood 125-250,000 years ago

Neanderthals are most often portrayed as big game hunters who derived the vast majority of their diet from large terrestrial herbivores while birds, fish and plants are seen as relatively unimportant or beyond the capabilities of Neanderthals. Although evidence for exploitation of other resources (small mammals, birds, fish, shellfish, and plants) has been found at certain Neanderthal sites, these are typically dismissed as unusual exceptions. The general view suggests that Neanderthal diet may broaden with time, but that this only occurs sometime after 50,000 years ago. We present evidence, in the form of lithic residue and use-wear analyses, for an example of a broad-based subsistence for Neanderthals at the site of Payre, Ardèche, France (beginning of MIS 5/end of MIS 6 to beginning of MIS 7/end of MIS 8; approximately 125-250,000 years ago). In addition to large terrestrial herbivores, Neanderthals at Payre also exploited starchy plants, birds, and fish. These results demonstrate a varied subsistence already in place with early Neanderthals and suggest that our ideas of Neanderthal subsistence are biased by our dependence on the zooarchaeological record and a deep-seated intellectual emphasis on big game hunting.     

Smallholder Livelihoods,Wealth and Deforestation in the Eastern Amazon

In this paper, I examine patterns of wealth accumulation and their influence on deforestation among smallholders at Uruará and Redenção, in the state of Pará in the Brazilian Eastern Amazon. I argue that the development of the smallholder economy has not been a linear process, and the diversity of smallholder farming systems and their patterns of wealth accumulation have varied implications for the rate and magnitude of deforestation. However, whilst there are differential impacts of farming practices on deforestation—cattle ranching has a greater impact than cash cropping or subsistence agriculture—the stronger correlate of deforestation is the wealth of the farmers. Wealthier farmers not only tend to deforest more in absolute terms, but also show a slightly greater propensity to deforest whatever their production system. Though cattle production is a key driver of wealth accumulation and thus deforestation, a significant number of smallholders adopt diversified production systems. The main factors explaining the relationship between the farming systems and deforestation were years of residence on the lot, distance of the lot to main market and the amount of day labor hired—and not variables describing household structure.     

In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems

A strategy is suggested for in situ conservation of crop genetic resources whereby conservation efforts are linked to rural development projects in Third World countries. We describe development projects that emphasize preservation of traditional farming systems and succeed in sustaining production by relying on the maintenance of biological and genetic diversity in these systems. Basing agricultural development efforts on indigenous knowledge, technology, and social organization can provide important guidelines for the design of cropping systems that allow lowincome farmers to produce subsistence and cash crops without dependence on external inputs and seed supplies. By incorporating landraces and wild relatives of crops into these cropping systems, major achievements in the conservation of crop genetic resources can be obtained.     

Early dry season subsistence ecology of Cuiva (Hiwi) foragers of Venezuela

The subsistence ecology of Venezuelan Cuiva foragers during the early dry season is described. Data on diet, time allocation, demography, and physical measurements are presented. Analyses show that the Cuiva depend primarily on game and wild roots during the early dry season for their subsistence. Sex differentials in productive efficiency, total contribution to the diet, and time allocation to food acquisition and other activities are also examined. As in most other foraging societies, men specialize in hunting while women specialize in gathering. During the early dry season, men provide more calories than women and are the more efficient food producers. However, men spend slightly less time than women in food acquisition. Demographic data show that child mortality rates, female infertility rates, female infanticide rates,and the sex ratio among juveniles are high in the Cuiva population. Comparisons between the patterns found among the Cuiva and other foraging populations are made.     

The Role of Barrier Islands in Subsistence of the Inhabitants of Roviana Lagoon,Solomon Islands

This multidisciplinary study examines the strategy adopted by villagers in the Roviana Lagoon, South New Georgia, Solomon Islands, to cope with changing socioeconomic and demographic conditions. The study addresses land use, shifting cycles, land tenure, soil nutrients, subsistence production, vegetation, land cover change, and carrying capacity. The results suggested that even if a society had been integrated into the market economy and introduced cash cropping, they used a small island, which was fertile, mainly for traditional shifting cultivation under customary management. However, they used a large area of the main island for cultivation of potentially risky perennial cash crops for private income. This case suggests that a local society is able to develop a harmonized way of rural development, community welfare, and environmental preservation.     

两种农业种植模式对重金属土壤的修复潜力

植物修复农田土壤重金属污染需要经历一个长期的过程,而大部分用来修复的植物都不具备利用价值,不能给当地农民带来经济收入。因此,一些农作物由于其较大的生物量和一定的经济价值,在植物修复土壤重金属污染的应用中受到广泛关注。是在重金属(Cu、Zn、Pb、Cd、As、Hg)复合污染的郴州矿区废弃农田种植油菜、玉米和油葵,研究油菜-玉米和油-油葵两种种植模式对土壤重金属污染的修复潜力。实验结果表明:三种作物在复合污染土壤中对重金属都表现出一定的耐性及吸收积累能力。向日葵的根和叶中重金属Cd、Cu的含量都很高,其中Cd在向日葵的各个部位的富集系数(BCF)及Cu在向日葵的根和叶的富集系数(BCF)都大于1。两种轮作模式对作物的产量没有明显的影响,收获得到的干物质量都很高,每年每公顷分别为油菜16.6t、玉米25.29t、油葵22.5t。两种种植模式都可以对土壤中的重金属进行有效的提取,油菜-油葵种植模式下提取重金属Cu、Pb、Cd、As的量较高,分别为:Cu 2408g hm~(-2)a~(-1),Pb 2027g hm~(-2)a~(-1),Cd 658.5g hm~(-2)a~(-1),As 250g hm~(-2)a~(-1),油菜-玉米模式下Zn和Hg的提取量较高,分别为Zn 4987g hm~(-2)a~(-1)和Hg 7.92g hm~(-2)a~(-1);对于多种重金属复合污染的土壤来说,油菜-油葵的种植模式要优于油菜-玉米的种植模式。总的来说,利用3种作物两两轮作的种植模式,在不影响作物产量的前提下大大的提高了作物对重金属的提取总量。3种作物在收获以后又可以用做工业原料,这就使得当地农民充分利用矿区废弃农田修复污染的同时又能从中获得一定经济效益。     

Subsistence hunting and conservation issues in the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique

Ethnozoological research was conducted to gather information on the hunting activities and their relevance for the subsistence of local people in 8 villages around the game reserve of Gile, Mozambique. Two series of data were gathered by questionnaires to: (a) 510 householders from eight villages located in the outskirts of the Reserve; (b) 10 hunters from the village of Gile, the main centre of the study area. Several hunting techniques were recorded: spears, nets, traps (including gin-traps) and wildfires, while the use of guns did not appear relevant. The importance of subsistence hunting for local people was underlined by the high percentage of respondents who declared that they usually conduct this activity and sell bushmeat. The proportion of hunters per village was related to the village size but not to its geographical location of villages and the household composition. A positive relationship existed between the proportion of hunters, crop production and fishing activities, indicating that hunting is part of an integrated system of subsistence activities. Most animals harvested were mammals (89.5%, of which 46.7% were ungulates) and most were captured within the Reserve (96%). A higher percentage of animals was sold (56%), representing a relevant income source for the villagers. Small animals were mainly captured by traps during solitary hunting, medium-sized animals in collective net hunting; larger prey were captured by gin-traps adopted by both solitary and collective hunting. In the diet of the local people wild animals represented a higher protein source than domestic animals.     

Boreal Fire Effects on Subsistence Resources in Alaska and Adjacent Canada

Rural communities in the northern boreal forest depend on a suite of wild species for subsistence, including large game animals, furbearers, fish, and plants. Fire is one of the primary ecological disturbances and determinants of landscape pattern in the northern boreal forest. We review responses of key boreal subsistence species to variation and change in post-fire stand age and other characteristics. Available data for 17 species indicate highly varied post-fire habitat requirements. Mosaics of differing stand ages generated by fire could therefore be most effective in supplying a suite of subsistence species to hunting-and-gathering communities. Recent and projected increases in frequency of large-fire years might produce a more homogeneous landscape dominated by younger stand ages. Increases in fire suppression around communities might also produce a more homogenous landscape, but dominated by older stand ages. Neither of these scenarios provides mixed habitats for a diverse suite of subsistence species. We suggest that one aspect of the complex suite of human–fire interactions is an understanding of wildlife and plant species’ response to fire in a subsistence region, in an effort to sustain ecosystem services critical to human well-being.     

The caloric returns to food collecting: Disruption and change among the Batak of the Philippine tropical forest

The changing economy of a group of tropical forest hunter-gatherers is examined. The Batak of the Philippines today earn many calories by participating in an external market system; once they would have earned these calories within the traditional subsistence system. Gathering and selling Manila copal to purchase rice has partially displaced digging wild yams as the major source of subsistence. Data show that this change has reduced the productive efficiency, of human labor. The Batak must work longer and perform more difficult tasks to obtain the same number of calories by collecting copal as they can obtain by digging wild yams, even as they must today work longer hours anyway to earn necessary cash to satisfy new, nonfood consumer wants. The growing dietary importance of rice is only one aspect of changing food consumption patterns that may be having an unfavorable impact on Batak nutrition.An Arizona State University Faculty Research Grant supported research among the Batak between 1 July and 6 August 1975. A short summary of the research results discussed here appears inBorneo Research Bulletin, April 1976.     

Art and Residence Among the Shipibo Indians of Peru: A Study in Microacculturation

The geometric decorative art of the Shipibo Indians, Peruvian montaña, is produced by women balanced between a cultural imperative for personal innovation and submission to the constraints of traditional style. The experimental commissioning of painted Shipibo textile samplers using a rule-based approach reveals that additional variables in the Deetz-Longacre hypothesis associating female stylistic uniformity with matrilineal descent and matrilocal residence, such as the number of elements and rules used and the higher position in a hierarchy of complexity such solutions occupy, contribute to aesthetic micro-acculturation. That is done in the Shipibo case in a way that belies the presupposition that the mother is always the most important mentor in a girl's art, while supporting this archaeological theory's prediction that a group of coresiding females produces relatively homogeneous art. [ethnoarchaeology, art-style analysis, Deetz-Longacre hypothesis, South American Indians, Peru, Shipibo]     

Life Without Pigs: Recent Subsistence Changes Among the Irakia Awa, Papua New Guinea

Beginning in the late 1980s, the Irakia Awa commenced changing their basic subsistence adaptation. This included altering gardening practices, changing basic food consumption patterns, and most importantly, eliminating the production of domestic pigs. These changes were undertaken as part of an effort to improve the life experience of local residents and usher in a new plan of village improvement. The plan promoted the disintensification of subsistence production and increased involvement in cash-earning and recreational pursuits, as well as Christianity. If successful, the promoters of the plan hope that the village will become a more attractive place to live, migrants living away will return home to help revitalize the community, and Irakia will flourish in the new cash-oriented modern economy.     

Changing crop biodiversity and resource use efficiency of traditional versus introduced crops in the cold desert of the northwestern Indian Himalaya: a case of the Lahaul valley

This paper studies the crop biodiversity and its changing patterns across an altitudinal gradient of three highland village agroecosystems: Hinsa (2700 m), Jahlma (3000 m) and Khoksar (3200 m). It also deals with energy (kilocalorie (physiological); kcal or Megajoules; MJ) and monetary (Indian rupee; Rs) efficiency of traditional crops versus recently introduced cash crops in the cold desert of the Lahaul valley. Newly introduced cash crops like hop, pea and potato have drastically reduced the crop biodiversity along the increasing altitudes. Of the total cropped area, 70% is occupied by these cash crops. Organic manure, mainly derived from forests and night soil, accounted for 90 and 77% of the total energy input in traditional and introduced cash crops in all the three selected villages, respectively. The energy output/input for traditional crops ranged in Hinsa from 0.6 (Kuth (Sausurea lappa, family Asteraceae) — a root crop of medicinal use) to 6.1 (amaranths); for the introduced cash crops it varied from 0.9 (potato) in Hinsa to 2.8 (pea) in Jahlma. In terms of energy, traditional crops are richer and more viable than the introduced cash crops. Monetary output/input of traditional crops was 0.8 (maize) to 11.8 (Kuth) and for introduced cash crops it was from 1.8 (potato) to 6.2 (hop). Overall, the average monetary efficiency of introduced crops was higher than that of traditional ones. Taking the average of the three villages, the energy and monetary output/input for the introduced cash crops was 1.4 and 3.3, respectively. However, for the purpose of food security and environmental conservation there is a need to establish a balance between traditional and introduced cash crops. This will make farming sustainable in the cold desert environment where crop growth period is limited. The Lahaul valley is landlocked and due to heavy snow deposits at Rohtang pass (3978 m), its main entry from Kullu valley remains accessible only for 5 months (July–November).     

Complex postglacial recolonization inferred from population genetic structure of mottled sculpin Cottus bairdii in tributaries of eastern Lake Michigan,U.S.A.

This study used analyses of the genetic structure of a non‐game fish species, the mottled sculpin Cottus bairdii to hypothesize probable recolonization routes used by cottids and possibly other Laurentian Great Lakes fishes following glacial recession. Based on samples from 16 small streams in five major Lake Michigan, U.S.A., tributary basins, significant interpopulation differentiation was documented (overall F_ST = 0·235). Differentiation was complex, however, with unexpectedly high genetic similarity among basins as well as occasionally strong differentiation within basins, despite relatively close geographic proximity of populations. Genetic dissimilarities were identified between eastern and western populations within river basins, with similarities existing between eastern and western populations across basins. Given such patterns, recolonization is hypothesized to have occurred on three occasions from more than one glacial refugium, with a secondary vicariant event resulting from reduction in the water level of ancestral Lake Michigan. By studying the phylogeography of a small, non‐game fish species, this study provides insight into recolonization dynamics of the region that could be difficult to infer from game species that are often broadly dispersed by humans.     

The time and energy expenditure of indigenous women horticulturalists in the Northwest Amazon

The energy cost of subsistence activities and the daily time and energy budgets of Tatuyo women were assessed as part of a village energy flow study. The Tatuyo are swidden horticulturalists relying on bitter manioc (Manihot esculenta) as a staple crop. Except for the actual felling of new gardens, women are responsible for most of the horticultural work and food preparation. Time budgets were assessed using 24-hour activity diaries. Rates of energy expenditure in typical activities were measured by indirect calorimetry using a Max-Planck respirometer. Daily energy expenditure was calculated using these rates in conjunction with the activity diaries. Rates of energy expenditure in standard activities were moderate and broadly comparable to published values for other populations living in tropical environments. The mean daily energy expenditure was 2,133 kcal (8.9 MJ). This value is similar to that reported for other subsistence horticulturalists and close to the FAO recommendation for energy intake for moderately active individuals.