Occluding junctions in a cultured transporting epithelium: Structural and functional heterogeneity

Summary MDCK cells (epithelioid of renal origin) form monolayers which are structurally and functionally similar to transporting epithelia. One of these similarities is the ability to form occluding junctions and act as permeability barriers. This article studies the junctions of MDCK monolayers formed on a permeable and transparent support (a disk of nylon cloth coated with collagen) by combining two different approaches: (i)Scanning of the electric field: the disk is mounted as a flat sheet between two Lucite chambers and pulses of 20–50 A cm^–2 are passed across. The apical surface of the monolayer is then scanned with a microelectrode to detect those points where the current is flowing. This shows that the occluding junctions of this preparation are not homogeneous, but contain long segments of high resistance, intercalated with sites of high conductance. (ii)Freeze fracture electron microscopy: the junctions are composed of regions of eight to ten strands intercalated with others where the strands are reduced to one or two ridges. The sites of high conductance may correspond to those segments where the number of junctional strands is reduced to 1 or 2. It is concluded that the occluding junctions of MDCK monolayers are functionally and morphologically heterogeneous, with tight regions intermixed with leaky ones.     

Changes in paracellular and cellular ionic permeabilities of monolayers of MDCK cells infected with influenza or vesicular stomatitis viruses

Summary MDCK cells (epithelioid line derived from the kidney of a normal dog) form monolayers which retain the properties of transporting epithelia. In these cells viruses bud asymmetrically: influenza from the apical, and vesicular stomatitis (VSV) from the basolateral membrane (E. Rodríguez-Boulán and D. D. Sabatini,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75: 5071–5075, 1978; E. Rodríguez-Boulán and M. Pendergast,Cell 20: 45–54, 1980). In the present study, we analyzed whether these viruses affect specific ion-translocating mechanisms located in the plasma membrane. We studied the effect of infection on membrane and transepithelial conductance, passive and active unidirectional fluxes of Na⁺ and K⁺, intracellular potentials, cellular content of Na⁺ and K⁺, and formation of blisters which, in these preparations, are due to the vectorial transport of fluid. Two main observations are derived from these studies. First, infection with VSV caused an increase in transepithelial electrical conductance, due to the opening of tight junctions, 5 to 6 hr after the start of infection, coincident with the accumulation of envelope protein in the cell surface and with the rise in the curve of virus budding. Infection with influenza, on the other hand, increased the transepithelial conductance only late in the infection (12 to 14 hr) when virus production has already stopped. Second, viruses did affect membrane permeability. Yet, the changes observed may not be ascribed to a perturbation of the specific translocating mechanisms for Na⁺ and K⁺ which operate in the same region of the plasma membrane that the viruses use to penetrate and leave MDCK cells. The methods used in the present study are not suitable to decide whether the nonspecific changes in permeability elicited by the viruses occur over the whole cell membrane or are restricted to a given region.     

Polarized nature of taurine transport in LLC-PK1 and MDCK cells: Further characterization of divergent transport models

Summary Taurine transport was measured in cultured epithelial cells-LLC-PK1 and MDCK-grown on permeable membrane supports. Taurine transport by LLC-PK1 cells was greater on the apical surface compared to the basolateral surface. MDCK cells exhibited greater taurine uptake from the basolateral side. Transepithelial taurine flux was in the direction of apical to basolateral in the LLC-PK1 monolayers. There was no net transepithelial movement of taurine in the MDCK monolayers. Efflux of taurine from the apical and the basolateral membrane surfaces of LLC-PK1 cell monolayers was stimulated by external-alanine but not L-alanine. Efflux of taurine from MDCK cell monolayers was stimulated by-alanine on the basolateral surface. While the competitive inhibitor guainidinoeithane sulfonate (GES) competitively inhibited taurine uptake to a similar degree on the apical and basolateral surface of LLC-PK1 cell monolayers, GES had a more potent inhibitory effect on the basolateral taurine uptake in MDCK cells when compared to its inhibition of apical taurine transport. We conclude that there are characteristic differences in transport of taurine by apical and basolateral surfaces of LLC-PK1 and MDCK cells which may be the consequence of asymmetric distribution or unique structural properties of the taurine transporter.Supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (DK 37223), the American Heart Association (92-004470).     

Distribution and characteristics of the occluding junctions in a monolayer of a cell line (MDCK) derived from canine kidney

Summary On solid substrates MDCK, a cell line derived from normal dog kidney, forms a confluent monolayer that is studded with blisters. Previous studies with this cell line suggest that these hemicysts develop as a result of active fluid accumulation between cell sheet and substratum. One factor that may determine when and how hemicysts appear only in localized sites is the interruption of occluding junctions in nonhemicyst areas. To study this possibility, we compared the permeability characteristics of the occluding junctions in hemicysts and in an uninterrupted monolayer of MDCK grown on a permeable support of collagen-coated nucleopore filter. The spontaneous electrical potential differences were small, without statistical differences between them. Relative ionic permeability coefficients were evaluated from the voltage deflections to imposed salt gradients or to a single ion substitution across both structures. The results showed that the relative permeability ratios for Na⁺, K⁺, choline⁺, and Cl^– were the same in hemicysts and the uninterrupted monolayer. These and other results indicate that the junctional complex encircling the apical surface of a sheet of MDCK cells can provide an effective permeability barrier constituting a true occluding junction with the same properties in hemicyst and nonhemicyst areas.     

Membrane transport parameters in frog corneal epithelium measured using impedance analysis techniques

Summary Active Cl^– transport in bullfrog corneal epithelium was studied using transepithelial impendance analysis methods, and direct-current (DC) measurements of membrane voltages and resistance ratios. The technique allows the estimation of the apical and basolateral membrane conductances, and the paracellular conductance, and does not rely on the use of membrane conductance-altering agents to obtain these measurements as was requisite in earlier DC equivalent-circuit analysis studies. In addition, the analysis results in estimates of the apical and basolateral membrane capacitances, and allows resolution of the paracellular conductance into properties of the tight junctions and lateral spaces. Membrane capacitances (proportional to areas) were used to estimate the specific conductances of the apical and basolateral membranes, as well as to evaluate coupling between the cell layers. We confirm results obtained from earlier studies: (1) apical membrane conductance is proportional to the rate of active Cl^– transport and is, highly Cl^– selective; (2) intracellular Cl^– activity is above electrochemical equilibrium, thereby providing a net driving force for apical membrane Cl^– exit; (3) the paracellular conductance is comparable to the transcellular conductance. We also found that: (1) the paracellular conductance is composed of the series combination of the junctional conductance and a nonnegligible lateral space resistance; (2) a small K⁺ conductance reported in the apical membrane may result from Cl^– channels possessing a finite permeability to K⁺; (3) the basolateral membrane areas is 36 times greater than the apical membrane area which is consistent with the notion of electrical coupling between the five to six cell layers of the epithelium; (4) the specific conductance of the basolateral membrane is many times lower than that of the apical membrane; (5) the net transport of Cl^– is modulated primarily by changes in the conductance of the apical membrane and not by changes in the net electrochemical gradient resulting from opposite changes in the electrical and chemical gradients; (6) the conductance of the basolateral membrane does not change with transport which implies that the net driving force for K⁺ exit increases with transport, possibly due to an increase in the intracellular K⁺ activity.     

Aldosterone regulates paracellular pathway resistance in rabbit distal colon

Summary Regulation of the paracellular pathway in rabbit distal colon by the hormone aldosterone was investigated in vitro in Ussing chambers by means of transepithelial and microelectrode techniques. To evaluate the cellular and paracellular resistances an equivalent circuit analysis was used. For the analysis the apical membrane resistance was altered using the antibiotic nystatin. Under control conditions two groups of epithelia were found, each clearly dependent on the light: dark regime. Low-transporting epithelia (LT) were observed in the morning and high-transporting epithelia (HT) in the afternoon. Na⁺ transport was about 3-fold higher in HT than in LT epithelia. Incubating epithelia of both groups with 0.1 mol·1^-1 aldosterone on the serosal side nearly doubled in LT epithelia the short circuit current and transepithelial voltage but the transepithelial resistance was not influenced. Maximal values were reached after 4–5 h of aldosterone treatment. In HT epithelia due to the effect of aldosterone all three transepithelial parameters remained constant over time. Evaluation of the paracellular resistance revealed a significant increase after aldosterone stimulation in both epithelial groups. This increase suggests that tight junctions might have been regulated by aldosterone. The hormonal effect on electrolyte transport was also dependent on the physiological state of the rabbit colon. Since net Na⁺ absorption in distal colon is, in addition to transcellular absorption capacity, also dependent on the permeability of the paracellular pathway, the regulation of tight junctions by aldosterone may be a potent mechanism for improving Na⁺ absorption during hormone-stimulated ion transport.Abbreviations V _t transepithelial potential difference (mV) - R _t transepithelial resistance (·cm²) - G _t transepithelial conductance (mS·cm^-2) - I_sc calculated short circuit current (A·cm^-2) - V _a apical membrane potential difference (mV) - V _bl basolateral membrane potential difference (mV) - voltage divider ratio - R _a apical membrane resistance (·cm²) - R _bl basolateral membrane resistance (·cm²) - R _c cellular resistance ( of apical and basolateral resistance) (·cm²) - R _p resistance of the paracellular pathway (·cm²) - G _a apical membrane conductance (mS·cm^-2) - G _bl basolateral membrane conductance (mS·cm^-2) - G _p paracellular conductance (mS·cm^-2) - G _t transepithelial conductance (mS·cm^-2) - HT _contr high transporting control epithelia - LT _contr low transporting control epithelia - HT _aldo aldosterone incubated high transporting epithelia - LT _aldo aldosterone incubated low transporting epithelia     

Tight junction formation in cultured epithelial cells (MDCK)

Summary Synthesis and assembly of tight junctions are studied in monolayers of MDCK cells plated at a density sufficient for confluence, allowed to attach for 1 hr, and transferred to fresh media without cells containing or not Ca²⁺, 20 hr later, while monolayers with Ca²⁺ have fully developed junctions that confer an electrical resistance across of 346±51 cm², those without Ca²⁺ have a negligible resistance. If at this time Ca²⁺ is added, junctions assemble and seal with a fast kinetics, that can be followed through the development of electrical resistance, penetration of ruthenium red, and electron microscopy. Drugs that impair synthesis, maturation and transport of proteins (cycloheximide, tunicamycin, monensin) indicate that protein components are synthesized early upon plating, do not seem to require N-glycosylation, and are stored in the Golgi compartment. Upon addition of Ca²⁺ they are transferred to the membrane with the participation of microfilaments but not of microtubules. These components seem to insert directly in the position they occupy in the strands, and the cell circles its perimeter with one strand as early as 15 min, even if in some segments it only consists of a row of particles. New strands develop in association with previous ones, and the pattern completes in 4 to 6 hr. Ca²⁺ is required for the maintenance of the assembly and also for the sealing with neighboring cells. These processes cannot occur below 25°C. Serum is not required. Polarized distribution of intramembrane particles (IMP) in apical and basolateral regions follows the same time course as junction formation, in spite of the fence constituted by those strands that are already assembled. This suggests that IMP do not redistribute by lateral displacements in the plane of the membrane, but by removal and insertion in the apical and basolateral domains.     

Polarized monolayers formed by epithelial cells on a permeable and translucent support

An epithelial cell line (MDCK) was used to prepare monolayers which, in vitro, develop properties of transporting epithelia. Monolayers were formed by plating cells at high densities (10(6) cells/cm2) on collagen- coated nylon cloth disks to saturate the area available for attachment, thus avoiding the need for cell division. An electrical resistance developed within 4-6 h after plating and achieved a steady-state value of 104 +/- 1.8 omega-cm2 after 24 h. Mature monolayers were morphologically and functionally polarized. They contained junctional complexes composed of desmosomes and tight junctions with properties similar to those of "leaky" epithelia. Monolayers were capable of maintaining a spontaneous electrical potential sensitive to amiloride, produced a net water flux from the apical to basal side, and discriminated between Na+ and Cl- ions. The MDCK permeability barrier behaves as a "thin" membrane with negatively charged sites. It has: (a) a linear conductance/concentration relationship; (b) an asymmetric instantaneous current/voltage relationship; (c) a reduced ability to discriminate between Na+ and Cl- caused by lowering the pH; and (d) a characteristic pattern of ionic selectivity which suggests that the negatively charged sites are highly hydrates and of medium field strength. Measurements of Na+ permeability of electrical and tracer methods ruled out exchange diffusion as a mechanism for ion permeation and the lack of current saturation in the I/deltapsi curves does not support the involvement of carriers. The discrimination between Na+ and Cl- was severely but reversibly decreased at low pH, suggesting that Na+-specific channels which exclude Cl- contain acidic groups dissociated at neutral pH. Bound Ca++ ions are involved in maintaining the integrity of the junctions in MDCK monolayers as was shown by a reversible drop of resistance and opening of the junctions in Ca++-free medium containing EGTA. Several other epithelial cell lines are capable of developing a significant resistance under the conditions used to obtain MDCK monolayers.     

Cellular and paracellular pathway resistances in the “tight” Cl−-secreting epithelium of rabbit cornea

Summary The high transverse resistance of the isolated rabbit cornea (6–12 k·cm²) is associated with the corneal epithelium, a Cl^–-secreting tissue which is modulated by -adrenergic and serotonergic receptors. Three methods were employed to determine the resistances for the apical membrane, basolateral membrane, and paracellular conductive pathways in the epithelium. In the first method, the specific resistance of the apical membrane was selectively and reversibly changed. Epinephrine was used to increase apical Cl^– conductance and Ag⁺ was used to increase apical cation permeability. The second method utilized a direct measure of the spontaneous cellular ionic current. The third method obtained estimates of shunt resistance using transepithelial electrophysiological responses to changes in apical membrane resistance. The results of the first method were largely independent of the agent used. In addition, the three methods were in general agreement, and the ranges of mean values for apical membrane, basolateral membrane, and shunt resistances were 23–33, 3–4, and 12–16 k·cm², respectively, for the normal cornea. The apical membrane was the major, physiologically-modulated barrier to ion permeation. The shunt resistance of the corneal epithelium was comparable to that found previously for other tight epithelia. Experiments using Ag⁺ in tissues that were bathed in Cl^– and HCO₃-free solutions indicated that under resting conditions the apical membrane is anion-selective.     

Electrophysiological studies of forskolin-induced changes in ion transport in the human colon carcinoma cell line HT-29 cl.19A: Lack of evidence for a cAMP-activated basolateral K+ conductance

Summary Forskolin (i.e, cAMP)-modulation of ion transport pathways in filter-grown monolayers of the Cl^–-secreting subclone (19A) of the human colon carcinoma cell line HT29 was studied by combined Ussing chamber and microimpalement experiments.Changes in electrophysiological parameters provoked by serosal addition of 10^–5 m forskolin included: (i) a sustained increase in the transepithelial potential difference (3.9±0.4 mV). (ii) a transient decrease in transepithelial resistance with 26±3 · cm² from a mean value of 138±13 · cm² before forskolin addition, (iii) a depolarization of the cell membrane potential by 24±1 mV from a resting value of –50±1 mV and (iv) a decrease in the fractional resistance of the apical membrane from 0.80±0.02 to 0.22±0.01. Both, the changes in cell potential and the fractional resistance, persisted for at least 10 min and were dependent on the presence of Cl^– in the medium. Subsequent addition of bumetanide (10^–4 m), an inhibitor of Na/K/2Cl cotransport, reduced the transepithelial potential, induced a repolarization of the cell potential and provoked a small increase of the transepithelial resistance and fractional apical resistance. Serosal Ba²⁺ (1mm), a known inhibitor of basolateral K⁺ conductance, strongly reduced the electrical effects of forskolin. No evidence was found for a forskolin (cAMP)-induced modulation of basolateral K⁺ conductance.The results suggest that forskolin-induced Cl^– secretion in the HT-29 cl.19A colonic cell line results mainly from a cAMP-provoked increase in the Cl^– conductance of the apical membrane but does not affect K⁺ or Cl^– conductance pathways at the basolateral pole of the cell. The sustained potential changes indicate that the capacity of the basolateral transport mechanism for Cl^– and the basal Ba²⁺-sensitive K⁺ conductance are sufficiently large to maintain the Cl^– efflux across the apical membrane. Furthermore, evidence is presented for an anomalous inhibitory action of the putative Cl^– channel blockers NPPB and DPC on basolateral conductance rather than apical Cl^– conductance.     

Plasma Membrane Water Permeability of Cultured Cells and Epithelia Measured by Light Microscopy with Spatial Filtering

A method was developed to measure the osmotic water permeability (P_f) of plasma membranes in cell layers and applied to cells and epithelia expressing molecular water channels. It was found that the integrated intensity of monochromatic light in a phase contrast or dark field microscope was dependent on relative cell volume. For cells of different size and shape (Sf9, MDCK, CHO, A549, tracheal epithelia, BHK), increased cell volume was associated with decreased signal intensity; generally the signal decreased 10–20% for a twofold increase in cell volume. A theory relating signal intensity to relative cell volume was developed based on spatial filtering and changes in optical path length associated with cell volume changes. Theory predictions were confirmed by signal measurements of cell layers bathed in solutions of various osmolarities and refractive indices. The excellent signal-to-noise ratio of the transmitted light detection permitted measurement of cell volume changes of <1%. The method was applied to characterize transfected cells and tissues that natively express water channels. P_f in control Chinese hamster ovary cells was low (0.0012 cm/s at 23°C) and increased more than fourfold upon stable transfection with aquaporins 1, 2, 4, or 5. P_f in apical and basolateral membranes in polarized epithelial cells grown on porous supports was measured. P_f ^bl and P_f ^ap were 0.0011 and 0.0024 cm/s (MDCK cells), and 0.0039 and 0.0052 cm/s (human tracheal cells) at 23°C. In intact toad urinary bladder, basolateral P_f was 0.036 cm/s and apical membrane P_f after vasopressin stimulation was 0.025 cm/s at 23°C. The results establish light microscopy with spatial filtering as a technically simple and quantitative method to measure water permeability in cell layers and provide the first measurement of the apical and basolateral membrane permeabilities of several important epithelial cell types.     

Freeze-fracture and morphometric analysis of occluding junctions in rectal glands of elasmobranch fish

Summary The structure of occluding junctions in secretory and ductal epithelium of salt-secreting rectal glands from two species of elasmobranch fish, the spiny dogfishSqualus acanthias and the stingrayDasyatis sabina, was examined by thin-section and freeze-fracture electron microscopy. In both species, occluding junctions between secretory cells are shallow in their apical to basal extent and are characterized by closely juxtaposed parallel strands. Average strand number in the dogfish was 3.5±0.2 with a mean depth of 56±5 nm; in the stingray a mean of 2.0±0.2 strands encompassed an average depth of 18±3 nm. In contrast, the linear extent of these junctions was remarkably large due to the intermeshing of the narrow apices of the secretory cells to form the tubular lumen. Morphometric analysis gave values of 66.8±2.5 and 74.9±4.6 m/cm² for the length of junction per unit of luminal surface area in the dogfish and stingray, respectively. This junctional morphology is similar to that generally described for leaky epithelia. In comparison, the stratified ductal epithelium which carries the NaCl-rich secretion to the intestine is characterized by extensive occluding junctions which extend 0.6–0.8 m in depth and consist of a mean of 12 strands arranged in an anastomosing network, an architectural pattern typical of tight epithelia. The length density of these junctions in the dogfish rectal gland was 7.6±0.1 m/cm².The junctional architecture of the rectal gland secretory epithelium (few strands, large junctional length densities) is similar to that described for several other hypertonic secretory epithelia [20, 34] and is compatible with the recent model for salt secretion in rectal glands [39] and in other Cl^– secretory epithelia which posits a conductive paracellular pathway for transepithelial Na⁺ secretion from intercellular space to the lumen to form the NaCl-rich secretory product.     

Localization of the 7H6 Antigen at Tight Junctions Correlates with the Paracellular Barrier Function of MDCK Cells

An important function of the tight junction is to act as a selective barrier to ions and small molecules, although no molecule responsible for the barrier function has been identified. Here we report evidence that the localization of the 7H6 tight junction-associated antigen identified in our laboratory at tight junctions correlates with the barrier function of MDCK cells. MDCK cells in a confluent monolayer possessed a polarized morphology, having an apical plasma membrane and a basolateral membrane, which is separated from the former by tight junctions. MDCK cells expressed both ZO-1 and 7H6 antigen at tight junctions, which maintain a tight barrier as determined by resistance to lanthanum permeation and high transepithelial electrical resistance (TER, 1500 ohm-cm²). The 7H6 antigen disappeared as tight junctions became permeable to lanthanum with a decrease in TER (below 100 ohm-cm²) due to treatment with metabolic inhibitors (10 μm antimycin A and 10 mM 2-deoxyglucose) for 30 min, while leaving ZO-1 at the cell border. The 7H6 antigen appeared at tight junctions again as TER recovered to a high level (1500 ohm-cm²) within 3 h after withdrawal of metabolic inhibitors. In addition, we found that 7H6 antigen is a phosphorylated protein and that phosphorylation is closely related to the localization of 7H6 antigen in the area of tight junctions.     

Multilayering and loss of apical polarity in MDCK cells transformed with viral K-ras

The effects of viral Kirsten ras oncogene expression on the polarized phenotype of MDCK cells were investigated. Stable transformed MDCK cell lines expressing the v-K-ras oncogene were generated via infection with a helper-independent retroviral vector construct. When grown on plastic substrata, transformed cells formed continuous monolayers with epithelial-like morphology. However, on permeable filter supports where normal cells form highly polarized monolayers, transformed MDCK cells detached from the substratum and developed multilayers. Morphological analysis of the multilayers revealed that oncogene expression perturbed the polarized organization of MDCK cells such that the transformed cells lacked an apical--basal axis around which the cytoplasm is normally organized. Evidence for selective disruption of apical membrane polarity was provided by immunolocalization of membrane proteins; a normally apical 114-kD protein was randomly distributed on the cell surface in the transformed cell line, whereas normally basolateral proteins remained exclusively localized to areas of cell contact and did not appear on the free cell surface. The discrete distribution of the tight junction-associated ZO-1 protein as well as transepithelial resistance and flux measurements suggested that tight junctions were also assembled. These findings indicate that v-K-ras transformation alters cell-substratum and cell-cell interactions in MDCK cells. Furthermore, v-K-ras expression perturbs apical polarization but does not interfere with the development of a basolateral domain, suggesting that apical and basolateral polarity in epithelial cells may be regulated independently.     

Electrical properties of chloride transport across theNecturus proximal tubule

Summary The chloride conductance of the basolateral cell membrane of theNecturus proximal tubule was studied using conventional and chloride-sensitive liquid ion exchange microelectrodes. Individual apical and basolateral cell membrane and shunt resistances, transepithelial and basolateral, cell membrane potential differences, and electromotive forces were determined in control and after reductions in extracellular Cl^–. When extracellular Cl^– activity is reduced in both apical and basolateral solutions the resistance of the shunt increases about 2.8 times over control without any significant change in cell membrane resistances. This suggests a high Cl^– conductance of the paracellular shunt but a low Cl^– conductance of the cell membranes. Reduction of Cl^– in both bathing solutions or only on the basolateral side hyperpolarizes both the basolateral cell membrane potential difference and electromotive force. Hyperpolarization of the basolateral cell membrane potential difference after low Cl^– perfusion was abolished by exposure to HCO ₃ ^– -free solutions and SITS treatment. In control conditions, intracellular Cl^– activity was significantly higher than predicted from the equilibrium distribution across both the apical and basolateral cell membranes. Reducing Cl^– in only the basolateral solution caused a decrease in intracellular Cl^–. From an estimate of the net Cl^– flux across the basolateral cell membrane and the electrochemical driving force, a Cl^– conductance of the basolateral cell membrane was predicted and compared to measured values. It was concluded that the Cl^– conductance of the basolateral cell membrane was not large enough to account for the measured flux of Cl^– by electrodiffusion alone. Therefore these results suggest the presence of an electroneutral mechanism for Cl^– transport across the basolateral cell membrane of theNecturus proximal tubule cell.     

Gangliosides modulate sodium transport in cultured toad kidney epithelia

Cultured A6 epithelial cells from toad kidney form confluent monolayers with tight junctions separating the apical and basolateral membranes. These two membrane domains have distinct compositions and functions. Thus, sodium is actively transported across the epithelia from the apical to basolateral surface via amiloride-inhibitable sodium channels located in the apical membrane. Sodium transport is stimulated by vasopressin, cholera toxin, and 8-bromo-cAMP applied to the basolateral surface where the receptors, adenylate cyclase, and Na+/K+-ATPase are located. In a previous study (Spiegel, S., Blumenthal, R., Fishman, P.H., and Handler, J.S. (1985) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 821, 310-318), we demonstrated that exogenous gangliosides inserted into the apical membrane of A6 epithelia do not redistribute to the basolateral membrane. With the ability to vary selectively the ganglioside composition of the apical membrane, we examined the effects of gangliosides on sodium transport in A6 epithelia. When the apical surface of A6 epithelia were exposed to exogenous gangliosides, sodium transport in response to vasopressin, cholera toxin, and 8-bromo-cAMP was enhanced compared to epithelia not exposed to gangliosides. The effect was observed with bovine brain gangliosides, NeuAc alpha 2----3Gal beta 1----3GalNAc beta 1----4[NeuAc alpha 2----3]Gal beta 1----4Glc beta 1----Cer (GD1a) and Gal beta-1----3GalNAc beta 1----4[NeuAc alpha 2----3]Gal beta 1----4Glc beta 1----Cer (GM1), but not with the less complex ganglioside, Neu-Ac alpha 2----3Gal beta 1----4Glc beta 1----Cer (GM3). We examined A6 cells for endogenous gangliosides and found that, whereas GM3 was a major ganglioside, only trace amounts of GM1 and GD1a were present. Based on cell surface and metabolic labeling studies, these gangliosides were synthesized by the cells and were present on the apical as well as the basolateral surface. Bacterial sialidase, which hydrolyzes more complex gangliosides to GM1, was used to modify the endogenous gangliosides on the apical surface; after sialidase treatment, the epithelia were more responsive to vasopressin, cholera toxin, and 8-bromo-cAMP. Thus, gangliosides may be modulators of sodium channels present in the apical membrane of epithelial cells.     

CO2-induced ion and fluid transport in human retinal pigment epithelium

In the intact eye, the transition from light to dark alters pH, [Ca²⁺], and [K] in the subretinal space (SRS) separating the photoreceptor outer segments and the apical membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). In addition to these changes, oxygen consumption in the retina increases with a concomitant release of CO₂ and H₂O into the SRS. The RPE maintains SRS pH and volume homeostasis by transporting these metabolic byproducts to the choroidal blood supply. In vitro, we mimicked the transition from light to dark by increasing apical bath CO₂ from 5 to 13%; this maneuver decreased cell pH from 7.37 ± 0.05 to 7.14 ± 0.06 (n = 13). Our analysis of native and cultured fetal human RPE shows that the apical membrane is significantly more permeable (≈10-fold; n = 7) to CO₂ than the basolateral membrane, perhaps due to its larger exposed surface area. The limited CO₂ diffusion at the basolateral membrane promotes carbonic anhydrase–mediated HCO₃ transport by a basolateral membrane Na/nHCO₃ cotransporter. The activity of this transporter was increased by elevating apical bath CO₂ and was reduced by dorzolamide. Increasing apical bath CO₂ also increased intracellular Na from 15.7 ± 3.3 to 24.0 ± 5.3 mM (n = 6; P < 0.05) by increasing apical membrane Na uptake. The CO₂-induced acidification also inhibited the basolateral membrane Cl/HCO₃ exchanger and increased net steady-state fluid absorption from 2.8 ± 1.6 to 6.7 ± 2.3 µl × cm⁻² × hr⁻¹ (n = 5; P < 0.05). The present experiments show how the RPE can accommodate the increased retinal production of CO₂ and H₂O in the dark, thus preventing acidosis in the SRS. This homeostatic process would preserve the close anatomical relationship between photoreceptor outer segments and RPE in the dark and light, thus protecting the health of the photoreceptors.     

Intracellular sodium activity and sodium transport inNecturus gallbladder epithelium

Summary Ion-sensitive glass microelectrodes, conventional microelectrodes and isotope flux measurements were employed inNecturus gallbladder epithelium to study intracellular sodium activity, [Na] _i , electrical parameters of epithelial cells, and properties of active sodium transport. Mean control values were: [Na] _i : 9.2 to 12.1mm; transepithelial potential difference, _ms : –1.5 mV (lumen negative); basolateral cell membrane potential, _es : –62 mV (cell interior negative); sodium conductance of the luminal cell membrane,g _Na: 12 mho cm^–2; active transcellular sodium flux, 88 to 101 pmol cm^–2 sec^–1 (estimated as instantaneous short-circuit current). Replacement of luminal Na by K led to a decrease of the intracellular sodium activity at a rate commensurate to the rate of active sodium extrusion across the basolateral cell membrane. Mucosal application of amphotericin B resulted in an increase of the luminal membrane conductance, a rise of intracellular sodium activity, and an increase of short-circuit current and unidirectional mucosa to serosa sodium flux. Conclusions: (i) sodium transport across the basolateral membrane can proceed against a steeper chemical potential difference at a higher rate than encountered under control conditions; (ii) the luminal Na-conductance is too low to accommodate sodium influx at the rate of active basolateral sodium extrusion, suggesting involvement of an electrically silent luminal transport mechanism; (iii) sodium entry across the luminal membrane is the rate-limiting step of transcellular sodium transport and active sodium extrusion across the basolateral cell membrane is not saturated under control conditions.     

Occluding junctions of theNecturus gallbladder

Summary The paracellular conducting pathway of theNecturus gallbladder was studied with electrophysiological and electromicroscopic methods. The first one consists of the passage of short (5 msec) and small (32 A cm^–2) current pulses associated with a voltage scanning of the plane of the epithelium at the apical surface with a microelectrode to detect the regions where current flows. The procedure shows that (a) the conductance is evenly distributed along the intercellular regions along the intercellular spaces of the cells where occluding junctions are located; (b) the field above the occluding junctions has the shape of a bell, so that the junction can be sensed at 1–2 m from the region where the intercellular space is visualized by light microscopy; (c) the intersections between three cells, in spite of having 3 half-junctions contributing (instead of two), do not have a higher conductance than the rest of the occluding junction. Scanning electron microscopy shows that (a) cells are densely covered by microvilli which interdigitate above the region of the occluding junctions, and (b) are covered by a surface coat. With transmission electron microscopy, (a) the opening of the occluding junctions at the apical border appears irregular, and most of them oblique; (b) in the last microns the actual mouth of the junction may deviate from the course of the interspace. Freeze-fracture replicas indicate that (a) the occluding junction has a uniform width and little variations in the number of strands around the cell, except (b) at intersections between 3 cells where both, its width and the number of strands, increase toward the basal region.