The composition of Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) milk throughout lactation.

The proximate chemical composition of milk was determined throughout lactation in the Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus Wood Jones), a temperate species with an 11-mo lactation period typical of most temperate otariids. Average lipid and protein contents were 42% and 10%, respectively, which is similar to that recorded for the polar otariid species but higher than reported in other temperate, long-lactation species. Milk composition, however, varied substantially throughout lactation, with lipid content rising from 30% soon after parturition to 50% at 230 d postpartum before decreasing to 45% toward weaning. The trend in water content was opposite to that of lipid, while protein content increased only slightly during lactation from 10% to 12%. The peak in lipid content occurred at approximately 70% of the way through lactation, similar to that found in the Australian sea lion and several phocid seal species. Significant positive relationships were found between milk lipid content and both the duration of the preceding foraging trip and body mass. A highly significant and close correlation was found between milk water and lipid contents such that gross energy content may be accurately predicted from water content alone. Similar predictive equations have been found for several other otariid and phocid species, but these appear to differ between phylogenetic groups.     

Evolutionary divergence in life history traits among populations of the Lake Malawi cichlid fish Astatotilapia calliptera

During the early stages of adaptive radiation, populations diverge in life history traits such as egg size and growth rates, in addition to eco‐morphological and behavioral characteristics. However, there are few studies of life history divergence within ongoing adaptive radiations. Here, we studied Astatotilapia calliptera, a maternal mouthbrooding cichlid fish within the Lake Malawi haplochromine radiation. This species occupies a rich diversity of habitats, including the main body of Lake Malawi, as well as peripheral rivers and shallow lakes. We used common garden experiments to test for life history divergence among populations, focussing on clutch size, duration of incubation, egg mass, offspring size, and growth rates. In a first experiment, we found significant differences among populations in average clutch size and egg mass, and larger clutches were associated with smaller eggs. In a second experiment, we found significant differences among populations in brood size, duration of incubation, juvenile length when released, and growth rates. Larger broods were associated with smaller juveniles when released and shorter incubation times. Although juvenile growth rates differed between populations, these were not strongly related to initial size on release. Overall, differences in life history characters among populations were not predicted by major habitat classifications (Lake Malawi or peripheral habitats) or population genetic divergence (microsatellite‐based F_ST). We suggest that the observed patterns are consistent with local selective forces driving the observed patterns of trait divergence. The results provide strong evidence of evolutionary divergence and covariance of life history traits among populations within a radiating cichlid species, highlighting opportunities for further work to identify the processes driving the observed divergence.     

Metabolic compensation during high energy output in fasting, lactating grey seals (Halichoerus grypus): metabolic ceilings revisited

Lactation is the most energetically expensive period for female mammals and is associated with some of the highest sustained metabolic rates (SusMR) in vertebrates (reported as total energy throughput). Females typically deal with this energy demand by increasing food intake and the structure of the alimentary tract may act as the central constraint to ceilings on SusMR at about seven times resting or standard metabolic rate (SMR). However, demands of lactation may also be met by using a form of metabolic compensation such as reducing locomotor activities or entering torpor. In some phocid seals, cetaceans and bears, females fast throughout lactation and thus cannot offset the high energetic costs of lactation through increased food intake. We demonstrate that fasting grey seal females sustain, for several weeks, one of the highest total daily energy expenditures (DEE; 7.4 x SMR) reported in mammals, while progressively reducing maintenance metabolic expenditures during lactation through means not explained by reduction in lean body mass or behavioural changes. Simultaneously, the energy-exported in milk is progressively increased, associated with increased lipoprotein lipase activity in the mammary gland, resulting in greater offspring growth. Our results suggest that females use compensatory mechanisms to help meet the extraordinary energetic costs of lactation. Additionally, although the concepts of SusMR and ceilings on total DEE may be somewhat different in fasting lactating species, our data on phocid seals demonstrate that metabolic ceilings on milk energy output, in general, are not constrained by the same kind of peripheral limitations as are other energy-consuming tissues. In phocid seals, the high ceilings on DEE during lactation, coupled with metabolic compensation, are undoubtedly important factors enabling shortened lactation.     

The Influences of Environment, Mating Habitat, and Predation on Evolution of Pinniped Lactation Strategies

Seals have adapted their social systems and lactation strategies to marine environments that include open and ice-covered oceans, high and low productivity, extremes in seasonality, and ocean- and terrestrial-type predators. Different explanations for the variation in pinniped lactation systems have been proposed but tests of alternative hypotheses have not sufficiently accounted for phylogeny and body size. After controlling for this variation, I predicted that environment, mating habitat, and predation would yield a fuller explanation. Lactation traits, duration, pup growth rate, and fat content were significantly influenced by both body size and phylogeny, which together explained 20–69% of the variation. After controlling for this variation, initial results did not support the environment hypothesis, as no differences in lactation traits were found between species living in polar (≥60°N) versus equatorial (<60°N) environments. In contrast, seals that nurse in areas of Arctic sea ice contending with ice-hunting predators, such as polar bears, had relatively short lactation compared to species living in the Antarctic and more equatorial regions. Also, the availability of predator-free islands for terrestrial mating and parturition was related to a harem mating system, increased sexual size dimorphism (SSD), and slow juvenile growth rates, less fat in milk, and longer lactation. Using structural equation modeling, latitude and size of harems provided independent explanations for all three lactation traits. Thus, use of islands in ice-free waters, predation in Arctic ice-covered waters, and more milk fat in high-latitude seals together provided adequate explanations for the evolution of lactation diversity among pinnipeds.     

The genetic basis of early‐life morphological traits and their relation to alternative male reproductive tactics in Atlantic salmon

Although heritability estimates for traits potentially under natural selection are increasingly being reported, their estimation remains a challenge if we are to understand the patterns of adaptive phenotypic change in nature. Given the potentially important role of selection on the early life phenotype, and thereby on future life history events in many fish species, we conducted a common garden experiment, using the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), with two major aims. The first objective is to determine how the site of origin, the paternal sexual tactic and additive genetic effects influence phenotypic variation of several morphological traits at hatching and emergence. The second aim is to test whether a link exists between phenotypic characteristics early in life and the incidence of male alternative tactics later in life. We found no evidence of a site or paternal effect on any morphological trait at hatching or emergence, suggesting that the spatial phenotypic differences observed in the natural river system from which these fish originated are mainly environmentally driven. However, we do find significant heritabilities and maternal effects for several traits, including body size. No direct evidence was found correlating the incidence of precocious maturation with early life characteristics. We suggest that under good growing conditions, body size and other traits at early developmental stages are not reliable cues for the surpassing of the threshold values associated with male sexual development.     

Trans-Generational Effect of Maternal Lactation during Pregnancy: A Holstein Cow Model

Epigenetic regulation in mammals begins in the first stages of embryogenesis. This prenatal programming determines, in part, phenotype expression in adult life. Some species, particularly dairy cattle, are conceived during the maternal lactation, which is a period of large energy and nutrient needs. Under these circumstances, embryo and fetal development compete for nutrients with the mammary gland, which may affect prenatal programming and predetermine phenotype at adulthood. Data from a specialized dairy breed were used to determine the transgenerational effect when embryo development coincides with maternal lactation. Longitudinal phenotypic data for milk yield (kg), ratio of fat-protein content in milk during first lactation, and lifespan (d) from 40,065 cows were adjusted for environmental and genetic effects using a Bayesian framework. Then, the effect of different maternal circumstances was determined on the residuals. The maternal-related circumstances were 1) presence of lactation, 2) maternal milk yield level, and 3) occurrence of mastitis during embryogenesis. Females born to mothers that were lactating while pregnant produced 52 kg (MonteCarlo standard error; MCs.e. = 0.009) less milk, lived 16 d (MCs.e. = 0.002) shorter and were metabolically less efficient (+0.42% milk fat/protein ratio; MCs.e.<0.001) than females whose fetal life developed in the absence of maternal lactation. The greater the maternal milk yield during embryogenesis, the larger the negative effects of prenatal programming, precluding the offspring born to the most productive cows to fully express their potential additive genetic merit during their adult life. Our data provide substantial evidence of transgenerational effect when pregnancy and lactation coincide. Although this effect is relatively low, it should not be ignored when formulating rations for lactating and pregnant cows. Furthermore, breeding, replacement, and management strategies should also take into account whether the individuals were conceived during maternal lactation because, otherwise, their performance may deviate from what it could be expected.     

How seals divide up the world: environment, life history, and conservation

Pinnipeds display a remarkable variation in life history adaptations while successfully inhabiting almost every marine environment. We explore how they have done this by grouping the world’s pinniped species according to their environmental conditions, mating systems, lactation strategies, and timing of life histories. Next, we tested whether any of these clusters provide information about risk of extinction (using the International Union for Nature and the Conservation of Natural Resources status ranks). Seals at risk were not characterized by differences in lactation pattern (22% short vs. 46% long), mating system (24% multi-male vs. 35% harems), or timing of life history events (23% fast vs. 42% slow) but did differ based on four environmental groupings. Grouping traits (rather than seals) described two clusters: one that included the environmental trait, primary productivity, and a second one that included all other environmental variables (seasonality, latitude, and temperature). Based on this result and theoretical considerations, we plotted seals according to energy (primary productivity) and variation (seasonality) and found a pattern analogous to that of the same four groups determined by cluster analysis of all environmental variables. Of the two pinniped groups representing low variation (equatorial and high productivity), ten of 21 seal species have been designated at risk, in contrast to none of the 13 seal species adapted to high variation. We conclude that seals appear to be best adapted to seasonal environments and thus, conservation efforts may benefit by concentrating on species inhabiting less variable environments.     

Genetic evaluation of Ethiopian Boran cattle and their crosses with Holstein Friesian in central Ethiopia: milk production traits

Breed additive and non-additive effects, and genetic parameters of lactation milk yield (LYD), 305-day milk yield (305YD), lactation length (LL), milk yield per day of lactation (DM) and lifetime milk yield (LTYD) were estimated in Ethiopian Boran cattle and their crosses with Holstein in central Ethiopia. The data analyzed included 2360 lactation records spread over 15 years. Ethiopian Boran cattle were consistently inferior (P < 0.01) to the Ethiopian Boran-Holstein crosses for the dairy traits studied. When the crosses were compared, LYD, 305YD and DM were higher (P < 0.01) for 75% and 87.5% crosses compared to 50% and 62.5% ones. However, the 50% crosses had higher (P < 0.01) LTYD than the other genetic groups. The individual additive genetic breed differences for milk production traits were all significant (P < 0.01). The estimates, in favor of Holstein, were 2055 ± 192 kg for LYD, 1776 ± 142 kg for 305YD, 108 ± 24 days for LL, 5.9 ± 0.5 kg for DM and 3353 ± 1294 kg for LTYD. Crossbreeding of the Holstein with the Ethiopian Boran resulted in desirable and significant (P < 0.01) individual heterosis for all milk production traits. The heterosis estimates were, 529 ± 98, 427 ± 72 kg, 44 ± 12 days 1.47 ± 0.23 kg and 3337 ± 681 kg, for LYD, 305YD, LL, DM and LTYD, respectively. The maternal heterotic effects were non-significant (P > 0.05) for all traits. Heritabilities of LYD, 305YD, LL, DM and LTYD for Ethiopian Boran were 0.20 ± 0.03, 0.18 ± 0.03, 0.26 ± 0.03, 0.13 ± 0.03 and 0.02 ± 0.04, respectively. The corresponding estimates for crosses were 0.10 ± 0.002, 0.11 ± 0.003, 0.63 ± 0.02, 0.45 ± 1.05 and 0.24 ± 0.11, respectively. Selection within each of the genetic groups and crossbreeding should substantially improve the milk production potential of the Ethiopian Boran breed under such production system.     

QUANTITATIVE GENETICS OF SIZE AND PHENOLOGY OF LIFE-HISTORY TRAITS IN CHAMAECRISTA FASCICULATA

Despite numerous adaptive scenarios concerning the evolution of plant life-history phenologies few studies have examined the heritable basis for and genetic correlations among these phenologies. Documentation of genetic variation for and covariation among reproductive phenologies is important because it is this variation/covariation that will determine the potential for response to evolutionary forces. To address this problem, I conducted a breeding experiment to determine narrow-sense heritabilities for and genetic correlations among the phenologies of life-history events and plant size in Chamaecristafasciculata, a temperate summer annual plant species. Paternal families showed no evidence of heritable variation for two estimates of plant size, six measures of reproductive phenology or two fitness components. Similarly, paternal estimates of genetic correlations among these traits were low or zero. In contrast, maternal estimates of heritability suggested the influence of maternal parent on one estimate of plant size and four phenological traits. Likewise, maternal effects influenced maternal estimates of genetic correlations. These maternal effects can arise from three sources: endosperm nuclear, cytoplasmic genetic and/or maternal phenotypic. The degree to which the phenology of one life-history trait acts as a constraint on the evolution of other phenological traits depends on the source of the maternal influence in this species.     

Age-related body weight constraints on prenatal and milk provisioning in Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) affect allocation of maternal resources

Maternal phenotypic characteristics can influence key life history variables of their offspring through maternal effects. In this study, we examined how body size constraints on maternal weight in yearling and subadult compared to adult hinds (age class effects) affected prenatal (calf birth weight, calf to hind weight ratio) and postnatal (milk) provisioning of Iberian red deer calves. Age correlated with all prenatal and postnatal investment traits except calf gains, although correlations were weaker than those with maternal weight. Once the effect of linear increase in weight with age was removed from models, yearlings showed additional reductions in calf birth weight, calf gains, and milk provisioning. The low-calf birth weight might increase the risk of calf mortality during lactation, as this occurs primarily during the first day of life and is strongly related to birth weight. Yearlings showed a greater prenatal allocation of resources in terms of greater calf to hind weight ratio probably as an extra effort by yearling mothers to balance calf neonatal mortality. It might compensate young mothers to produce low-quality calves while still growing rather than waiting for the uncertain possibility of surviving to the next reproductive season.     

Implication of life history strategies for prenatal investment in cetaceans

Prenatal investment directly determines the size at birth and fetus growth rate, which affects neonatal survival and growth and potentially affects maternal fitness. This study explored the associated prenatal life history traits of cetaceans. Using multivariate analysis and ANCOVA, baleen whales and toothed cetaceans had distinct energy patterns, with two exceptions including beaked whales and eusocial cetaceans. Baleen whales are characterized by fast prenatal growth, which suggests high prenatal energetics, and utilize the capital breeder tactic. Toothed cetaceans, except for beaked whales, utilize income breeder energetics, which yields relatively slow prenatal growth. However, eusocial cetaceans have especially slow prenatal growth, suggesting very low prenatal energetic effort with social compensation. Although beaked whales are behaviorally income breeders, both discriminant analysis and ANCOVA showed that they are energetically similar to baleen whales, utilizing capital energetics. ANCOVA further revealed that beaked whales have comparatively large calf size, suggesting high prenatal investment. Because all cetaceans wean their calves at comparable size, high prenatal investment may further suggest reduced cost of lactation, which may be behaviorally and energetically adaptive to their specific deep‐dive‐feeding niche.     

Scaling of growth and life history traits relative to body size, brain size, and metabolic rate in lorises and galagos (Lorisidae, primates)

A broad range of variation in body size, brain size, and metabolic rate occurs within the primate family Lorisidae, thus providing an opportunity to examine the relationship of these three parameters to variation in growth and life history traits. Data on adult body weight, gestation length, lactation length, age at first estrus, litter size, and growth parameters were collected from a captive colony of four lorisid species, Loris tardigradus, Nycticebus coucang, Galago crassicaudatus, and G. senegalensis. The data presented here constitute the most complete life history information available for these poorly understood prosimian species. Correlation and allometric analyses were performed to determine the relationships between variables. Among the lorisids studied, adult body weight, adult cranial capacity, and relative cranial capacity did not predict variation in life history traits. Adult basal metabolic rate predicted most of the variability in gestation length, lactation length, and growth parameters. Lorisines differ from similarly sized galagines in having lower basal metabolic rates, slower growth rates, slower developmental rates, and smaller litter sizes, resulting in reduced reproductive potential. This may be a consequence of lorisine adaptation to a diet of toxic insects. Metabolic rate and diet may be among the most important parameters to examine in any study of life history evolution.     

The influence of reproductive experience on milk energy output and lactation performance in the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus)

Although evidence from domestic and laboratory species suggests that reproductive experience plays a critical role in the development of aspects of lactation performance, whether reproductive experience may have a significant influence on milk energy transfer to neonates in wild populations has not been directly investigated. We compared maternal energy expenditures and pup growth and energy deposition over the course of lactation between primiparous and fully-grown, multiparous grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) females to test whether reproductive experience has a significant influence on lactation performance. Although there was no difference between primiparous females in milk composition and, thus, milk energy content at either early or peak lactation primiparous females had a significantly lower daily milk energy output than multiparous females indicating a reduced physiological capacity for milk secretion. Primiparous females appeared to effectively compensate for lower rates of milk production through an increased nursing effort and, thus, achieved the same relative rate of milk energy transfer to pups as multiparous females. There was no difference between primiparous and multiparous females in the proportion of initial body energy stores mobilised to support the costs of lactation. Although primiparous females allocated a greater proportion of energy stores to maternal maintenance versus milk production than multiparous females, the difference was not sufficient to result in significant differences in the efficiency of energy transfer to pups. Thus, despite a lower physiological capacity for milk production, primiparous females weaned pups of the same relative size and condition as multiparous females without expending proportionally more energy. Although reproductive experience does not significantly affect the overall lactation performance of grey seals, our results suggest that increases in mammary gland capacity with reproductive experience may play a significant role in the age-related increases in neonatal growth rates and weaning masses observed in other free-ranging mammals.     

Feast or famine: evidence for mixed capital–income breeding strategies in Weddell seals

Evolved patterns of resource expenditure for reproduction have resulted in a life history continuum across species. A strictly capital-breeding strategy relies extensively on stored energy for reproduction, whereas income breeding uses energy acquired throughout the reproductive period. However, facultative income breeding has been shown in some classically capital-breeding animals, and was originally thought to provide a nutritional refuge for smaller females incapable of securing sufficient reserves during pre-partum foraging. We examined milk composition and milk output for the Weddell seal to determine to what degree lactation was aided by food intake, and what factors contributed to its manifestation. Milk composition was independent of maternal post-partum mass and condition, but did change over lactation. Changes were most likely in response to energetic and nutritional demands of the pup at different stages of development. During early lactation, females fasted and devoted 54.9% of total energy loss to milk production. Later in lactation 30.5% more energy was devoted to milk production and evidence suggested that larger females fed more during lactation than smaller females. It appears that Weddell seals may exhibit a flexible strategy to adjust reproductive investment to local resource levels by taking advantage of periods when prey are occasionally abundant, although it is restricted to larger females possessing the physiological capacity to dive for longer and exploit different resources during lactation. This supports the assumption that although body mass and phylogenetic history explain most of the variation in lactation patterns (20–69%), the remaining variation has likely resulted from physiological adaptations to local environmental conditions. Our study confirms that Weddell seals use a mixed capital–income breeding strategy, and that considerable intraspecific variation exists. Questions remain as to the amount of energy gain derived from the income strategy, and the consequences for pup condition and survival. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Perinatal life history traits in New World monkeys

Gestation length, neonatal and maternal body weight, and neonatal and adult brain weight data were collected for New World monkeys in an attempt to establish typical patterns of perinatal life history. This study attempts to illuminate the most accurate values from the available data, which suggest that gestation length and prenatal growth rate are broadly conserved in relation to maternal size in New World monkeys. Exceptions to the patterns evident in the data point to derivations in life history strategies. In particular, this study suggests that the extended gestation length of callitrichines is a function of minimum viable neonate size and not exclusively energy minimization associated with simultaneous lactation. Cebus is shown to undergo more postnatal brain growth relative to other New World monkeys, but not as much as previously believed. Alouatta is shown to be relatively small brained at birth as well as in adulthood. Saimiri is shown to present the most unusual package of perinatal life history traits, in which precocial neonates are gestated for a relatively long time and at a slightly faster growth rate than is typical for New World monkeys. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of reproductive strategies on pollutant concentrations in pinnipeds: a meta‐analysis

In marine mammals such as pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walruses), reproductive strategies reveal how species acquire, store and allocate energy to offspring. During lactation, females can allocate energy acquired from concurrent resources (income breeding); or utilize energy stored prior to reproduction (capital breeding). Mothers transfer a large proportion of energy to their pups via lipid rich milk, meaning that pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and mercury (Hg) will also transfer, raising concern for negative health effects. To quantify the effect of reproductive strategy on maternal pollutant transfer in pinnipeds, we developed a proxy for income and capital breeding by focusing on the lactational component of reproduction, and arranged species along this gradient. We found a strong positive relationship between lipid content in milk and degree of capital breeding. We tested this gradient against maternal pollutant transfer expressed as a concentration ratio by meta‐analysis. In mother‐pup pairs, the concentration ratio of PCBs was one order of magnitude higher than for mercury. PCB concentrations in pups and juveniles were similar to adult females, but mercury was always lower in young offspring than in females. We found no effect of reproductive strategy between studies investigating mother‐pup pairs and non‐related females and juveniles (< 1 year old), however data were strongly biased towards capital breeders. Our results suggest that either: 1) reproductive strategy does not affect pollutant bioaccumulation; or 2) a lack of income breeder data prevents us from testing the overall effect of reproductive strategy on maternal pollutant transfer. The finding that PCB concentrations in juveniles are similar to females is of concern due to early life stage exposure. We recommend data collection from income breeding species such as the sea lions to elucidate whether reproductive strategy, and potentially other life history traits, has an overall effect on maternal pollutant transfer.     

A mother’s legacy: the strength of maternal effects in animal populations

Although mothers influence the traits of their offspring in many ways beyond the transmission of genes, it remains unclear how important such ‘maternal effects’ are to phenotypic differences among individuals. Synthesizing estimates derived from detailed pedigrees, we evaluated the amount of phenotypic variation determined by maternal effects in animal populations. Maternal effects account for half as much phenotypic variation within populations as do additive genetic effects. Maternal effects most greatly affect morphology and phenology but, surprisingly, are not stronger in species with prolonged maternal care than in species without. While maternal effects influence juvenile traits more than adult traits on average, they do not decline across ontogeny for behaviour or physiology, and they do not weaken across the life cycle in species without maternal care. These findings underscore maternal effects as an important source of phenotypic variation and emphasise their potential to affect many ecological and evolutionary processes.     

DISENTANGLING THE CONTRIBUTION OF SEXUAL SELECTION AND ECOLOGY TO THE EVOLUTION OF SIZE DIMORPHISM IN PINNIPEDS

The positive relationship between sexual size dimorphism (SSD) and harem size across pinnipeds is often cited as a textbook example of sexual selection. It assumes that female aggregation selected for large male size via male–male competition. Yet, it is also conceivable that SSD evolved prior to polygyny due to ecological forces. We analyzed 11 life‐history traits in 35 pinniped species to determine their coevolutionary dynamics and infer their most likely evolutionary trajectories contrasting these two hypotheses. We find support for SSD having evolved prior to changes in the mating system, either as a consequence of niche partitioning during aquatic foraging or in combination with sexual selection on males to enforce copulations on females. Only subsequently did polygyny evolve, leading to further coevolution as the strength of sexual selection intensified. Evolutionary sequence analyses suggest a polar origin of pinnipeds and indicate that SSD and polygyny are intrinsically linked to a suite of ecological and life‐history traits. Overall, this study calls for the inclusion of ecological variables when studying sexual selection and argues for caution when assuming causality between coevolving traits. It provides novel insights into the role of sexual selection for the coevolutionary dynamics of SSD and mating system.     

Genetic parameters for endocrine and traditional fertility traits,hyperketonemia and milk yield in dairy cattle

High-yielding cows may suffer from negative energy balance during early lactation, which can lead to ketosis and delayed ability of returning to cyclicity after calving. Fast recovery after calving is essential when breeding for improved fertility. Traditionally used fertility traits, such as the interval from calving to first insemination (CFI), have low heritabilities and are highly influenced by management decisions. Herd Navigator™ management program samples and analyses milk progesterone and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) automatically during milking. In this study, the genetic parameters of endocrine fertility traits (measured from milk progesterone) and hyperketonemia (measured from milk BHB) in early lactation were evaluated and compared with traditional fertility traits (CFI, interval from calving to the last insemination and interval from first to last insemination) and the milk yield in red dairy cattle herds in Finland. Data included observations from 14 farms from 2014 to 2017. Data were analyzed with linear animal models using DMU software and analyses were done for first parity cows. Heritability estimates for traditional fertility traits were low and varied between 0.03 and 0.07. Estimated heritabilities for endocrine fertility traits (interval from calving to the first heat (CFH) and commencement of luteal activity (C-LA)) were higher than for traditional fertility traits (0.19 to 0.33). Five slightly different hyperketonemia traits divided into two or three classes were studied. Linear model heritability estimates for hyperketonemia traits were low, however, when the threshold model was used for binary traits the estimates became slightly higher (0.07 to 0.15). Genetic correlation between CFH and C-LA for first parity cows was high (0.97) as expected since traits are quite similar. Moderate genetic correlations (0.47 to 0.52) were found between the endocrine fertility traits and early lactation milk yield. Results suggest that the data on endocrine fertility traits measured by automatic systems is a promising tool for improving fertility, specifically when more data is available. For hyperketonemia traits, dividing values into three classes instead of two seemed to work better. Based on the current study and previous studies, where higher heritabilities have been found for milk BHB traits than for clinical ketosis, milk BHB traits are a promising indicator trait for resistance to ketosis and should be studied more. It is important that this kind of data from automatic devices is made available to recording and breeding organizations in the future.