Antiviral strategies in plants based on RNA silencing

One of the challenges being faced in the twenty-first century is the biological control of plant viral infections. Among the different strategies to combat virus infections, those based on pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) are probably the most powerful approaches to confer virus resistance in plants. The application of the PDR concept not only revealed the existence of a previously unknown sequence-specific RNA-degradation mechanism in plants, but has also helped to design antiviral strategies to engineer viral resistant plants in the last 25 years. In this article, we review the different platforms related to RNA silencing that have been developed during this time to obtain plants resistant to viruses and illustrate examples of current applications of RNA silencing to protect crop plants against viral diseases of agronomic relevance. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MicroRNAs in viral gene regulation.     

Gene silencing in plants

Here, the role of small RNAs is described in (i) cytoplasmic viral RNA silencing; (ii) cellular mRNA silencing via miPHK production. The role of cellular factors such as Dicers, Argonautes, RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase, RNA-polymerase IV and pectin methylesterase are discussed in details. Moreover, silencing suppression by viral proteins/RNAs and silencing as an approach of biotechnology are reviewed.     

Gene silencing in plants

The review considers the cytoplasmic silencing of viral RNAs by short RNAs and the silencing of endogenous mRNAs by specific short double-stranded microRNAs. The role of some cell factors such as Dicer, Argonaute, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, RNA polymerase IV, and pectin methylesterase is described in detail. The role of viral proteins and nucleic acids in silencing suppression and possible biotechnological applications of this mechanism are discussed.     

Virus-induced gene silencing in plants

Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) is a technology that exploits an RNA-mediated antiviral defense mechanism. In plants infected with unmodified viruses the mechanism is specifically targeted against the viral genome. However, with virus vectors carrying inserts derived from host genes the process can be additionally targeted against the corresponding mRNAs. VIGS has been used widely in plants for analysis of gene function and has been adapted for high-throughput functional genomics. Until now most applications of VIGS have been in Nicotiana benthamiana. However, new vector systems and methods are being developed that could be used in other plants, including Arabidopsis. Here we discuss practical and theoretical issues that are specific to VIGS rather than other gene "knock down" or "knockout" approaches to gene function. We also describe currently used protocols that have allowed us to apply VIGS to the identification of genes required for disease resistance in plants. These methods and the underlying general principles also apply when VIGS is used in the analysis of other aspects of plant biology.     

RNA silencing platforms in plants

Since the discovery of RNAi, its mechanism in plants and animals has been intensively studied, widely exploited as a research tool, and used for a number of potential commercial applications. In this article, we discuss the platforms for delivering RNAi in plants. We provide a brief background to these platforms and concentrate on discussing the more recent advances, comparing the RNAi technologies used in plants with those used in animals, and trying to predict the ways in which RNAi technologies may further develop.     

RNA silencing movement in plants

Higher eukaryotes have developed a mechanism of sequence-specific RNA degradation which is known as RNA silencing. In plants and some animals, similar to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, RNA silencing is a non-cell-autonomous event. Hence, silencing initiation in one or a few cells leads progressively to the sequence-specific suppression of homologous sequences in neighbouring cells in an RNA-mediated fashion. Spreading of silencing in plants occurs through plasmodesmata and results from a cell-to-cell movement of a short-range silencing signal, most probably 21-nt siRNAs (short interfering RNAs) that are produced by one of the plant Dicer enzymes. In addition, silencing spreads systemically through the phloem system of the plants, which also translocates metabolites from source to sink tissues. Unlike the short-range silencing signal, there is little known about the mediators of systemic silencing. Recent studies have revealed various and sometimes surprising genetic elements of the short-range silencing spread pathway, elucidating several aspects of the processes involved. In this review we attempt to clarify commonalities and differences between the individual silencing pathways of RNA silencing spread in plants.     

RNA silencing movement in plants

Multicellular organisms, like higher plants, need to coordinate their growth and development and to cope with environmental cues. To achieve this, various signal molecules are transported between neighboring cells and distant organs to control the fate of the recipient cells and organs. RNA silencing produces cell non-autonomous signal molecules that can move over short or long distances leading to the sequence specific silencing of a target gene in a well defined area of cells or throughout the entire plant,respectively. The nature of these signal molecules, the route of silencing spread, and the genes involved in their production, movement and reception are discussed in this review. Additionally, a short section on features of silencing spread in animal models is presented at the end of this review.     

RNA沉默与植物病毒

植物中RNA沉默（RNAsilencing)亦称为转录后基因沉默（PTGS）或共抑制,是植物抵抗外来核酸（转座子、转基因或病毒）入侵,并保护自身基因组完整性的一种防御机制。RNA沉默是近十年来发现的植物界中普遍存在的现象,已成为植物分子生物学领域的一个新的研究方向。对RNA沉默特点和机制的研究表明,植物病毒与（转基因）植物内发生的RNA沉默有着密切的联系,作者从病毒对RNA沉默的诱导、抑制、防御等方面,简述了RNA沉默与病毒的关系。并对病毒载体所诱导的RNA沉默在植物发育和基因组功能分析等方面的应用价值进行了讨论。     

RNA silencing movement in plants.

Higher eukaryotes have developed a mechanism of sequence-specific RNA degradation which is known as RNA silencing. In plants and some animals, similar to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, RNA silencing is a non-cell-autonomous event. Hence, silencing initiation in one or a few cells leads progressively to the sequence-specific suppression of homologous sequences in neighbouring cells in an RNA-mediated fashion. Spreading of silencing in plants occurs through plasmodesmata and results from a cell-to-cell movement of a short-range silencing signal, most probably 21-nt siRNAs (short interfering RNAs) that are produced by one of the plant Dicer enzymes. In addition, silencing spreads systemically through the phloem system of the plants, which also translocates metabolites from source to sink tissues. Unlike the short-range silencing signal, there is little known about the mediators of systemic silencing. Recent studies have revealed various and sometimes surprising genetic elements of the short-range silencing spread pathway, elucidating several aspects of the processes involved. In this review we attempt to clarify commonalities and differences between the individual silencing pathways of RNA silencing spread in plants.     

Application of gene silencing in plants

Recent studies of gene silencing in plants have revealed two RNA-mediated epigenetic processes, RNA-directed RNA degradation and RNA-directed DNA methylation. These natural processes have provided new avenues for developing high-efficiency, high-throughput technology for gene suppression in plants.     

RNA silencing and its application in plants

<正>RNA silencing, also known as gene silencing, is a sequence-specific RNA degradation mechanism that is highly conserved in eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, nematodes, and fungi. In eukaryotes, RNA silencing has a pivotal role in the regulation of development, genome stability, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses through