Substrate-selective and calcium-independent activation of CaMKII by α-actinin

Protein-protein interactions are thought to modulate the efficiency and specificity of Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) signaling in specific subcellular compartments. Here we show that the F-actin-binding protein α-actinin targets CaMKIIα to F-actin in cells by binding to the CaMKII regulatory domain, mimicking CaM. The interaction with α-actinin is blocked by CaMKII autophosphorylation at Thr-306, but not by autophosphorylation at Thr-305, whereas autophosphorylation at either site blocks Ca(2+)/CaM binding. The binding of α-actinin to CaMKII is Ca(2+)-independent and activates the phosphorylation of a subset of substrates in vitro. In intact cells, α-actinin selectively stabilizes CaMKII association with GluN2B-containing glutamate receptors and enhances phosphorylation of Ser-1303 in GluN2B, but inhibits CaMKII phosphorylation of Ser-831 in glutamate receptor GluA1 subunits by competing for activation by Ca(2+)/CaM. These data show that Ca(2+)-independent binding of α-actinin to CaMKII differentially modulates the phosphorylation of physiological targets that play key roles in long-term synaptic plasticity.     

PKC phosphorylation of a conserved serine residue in the C-terminus of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors inhibits calmodulin binding

Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) serve as presynaptic receptors that mediate feedback inhibition of glutamate release via a Ca(2+)/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent mechanism. In vitro phosphorylation of mGluR7A by protein kinase C (PKC) prevents its interaction with Ca(2+)/CaM. In addition, activation of PKC leads to an inhibition of mGluR signaling. Here, we demonstrate that disrupting CaM binding to mGluR7A by PKC in vitro is due to phosphorylation of a highly conserved serine residue, S862. We propose charge neutralization of the CaM binding consensus sequence resulting from phosphorylation to constitute a general mechanism for the regulation of presynaptic mGluR signaling.     

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors, mGlu1a and mGlu5a, couple to cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) through a common Ca2+ - and protein kinase C-dependent pathway

Coupling of the group I metabotropic glutamate receptors, mGlu1a and mGlu5a, to the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) has been studied in Chinese hamster ovary cell lines where receptor expression is under the control of an inducible promoter. Both receptors stimulate CREB phosphorylation with similar time courses, and agonist potency was also comparable between the two receptors. Stimulation of cells in Ca(2+)-free medium containing EGTA (100 microm), with or without the additional depletion of intracellular stores, caused marked decreases in agonist-mediated responses in both cell lines. Down-regulation of protein kinase C (PKC) activity by phorbol ester treatment, or treatment with the broad spectrum PKC inhibitor Ro 31-8220, partially attenuated both mGlu1a and mGlu5a receptor-mediated responses. Furthermore, stimulation of cells in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) following prior PKC down-regulation resulted in additive inhibitory effects. The involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2), Ca(2+)/calmodulin or Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases was assessed using pharmacological inhibitors. Results indicated that coupling of the group I mGlu receptors to CREB phosphorylation occurs independently of these pathways. Thus, although the [Ca(2+)](i) signatures activated by these mGlu receptors differ, they couple to CREB with comparable potency and recruit similar downstream components to execute CREB phosphorylation.     

Isolation and characterization of a novel calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, AtCK, from arabidopsis

Protein phosphorylation is one of the major mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells transduce extracellular signals into intracellular responses. Calcium/calmodulin (Ca(2+)/CaM)-dependent protein phosphorylation has been implicated in various cellular processes, yet little is known about Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs) in plants. From an Arabidopsis expression library screen using a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated soybean calmodulin isoform (SCaM-1) as a probe, we isolated a full-length cDNA clone that encodes AtCK (Arabidopsis thaliana calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase). The predicted structure of AtCK contains a serine/threonine protein kinase catalytic domain followed by a putative calmodulin-binding domain and a putative Ca(2+)-binding domain. Recombinant AtCK was expressed in E. coli and bound to calmodulin in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. The ability of CaM to bind to AtCK was confirmed by gel mobility shift and competition assays. AtCK exhibited its highest levels of autophosphorylation in the presence of 3 mM Mn(2+). The phosphorylation of myelin basic protein (MBP) by AtCK was enhanced when AtCK was under the control of calcium-bound CaM, as previously observed for other Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinases. In contrast to maize and tobacco CCaMKs (calcium and Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinase), increasing the concentration of calmodulin to more than 3 microgram suppressed the phosphorylation activity of AtCK. Taken together our results indicate that AtCK is a novel Arabidopsis Ca(2+)/CaM-dependent protein kinase which is presumably involved in CaM-mediated signaling.     

The tuberous sclerosis protein TSC2 is not required for the regulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin by amino acids and certain cellular stresses

Amino acids positively regulate signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Recent work demonstrated the importance of the tuberous sclerosis protein TSC2 for regulation of mTOR by insulin. TSC2 contains a GTPase-activator domain that promotes hydrolysis of GTP bound to Rheb, which positively regulates mTOR signaling. Some studies have suggested that TSC2 also mediates the control of mTOR by amino acids. In cells lacking TSC2, amino acid withdrawal still results in dephosphorylation of S6K1, ribosomal protein S6, the eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein, and elongation factor-2 kinase. The effects of amino acid withdrawal are diminished by inhibiting protein synthesis or adding back amino acids. These studies demonstrate that amino acid signaling to mTOR occurs independently of TSC2 and involves additional unidentified inputs. Although TSC2 is not required for amino acid control of mTOR, amino acid withdrawal does decrease the proportion of Rheb in the active GTP-bound state. Here we also show that Rheb and mTOR form stable complexes, which are not, however, disrupted by amino acid withdrawal. Mutants of Rheb that cannot bind GTP or GDP can interact with mTOR complexes. We also show that the effects of hydrogen peroxide and sorbitol, cell stresses that impair mTOR signaling, are independent of TSC2. Finally, we show that the ability of energy depletion (which impairs mTOR signaling in TSC2+/+ cells) to increase the phosphorylation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 is also independent of TSC2. This likely involves the phosphorylation of the elongation factor-2 kinase by the AMP-activated protein kinase.     

The phototrophic bacterium Rhodopseudomonas capsulata sp108 encodes an indigenous class A beta-lactamase.

It has previously been demonstrated that calmodulin can be phosphorylated in vitro and in vivo by both tyrosine-specific and serine/threonine protein kinase. We demonstrate here that the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase purified from human placenta phosphorylates calmodulin. The highly purified receptors (prepared by insulin-Sepharose chromatography) were 5-10 times more effective in catalysing the phosphorylation of calmodulin than an equal number of partially purified receptors (prepared by wheat-germ agglutinin-Sepharose chromatography). Phosphorylation occurred exclusively on tyrosine residues, up to a maximum of 1 mol [0.90 +/- 0.14 (n = 5)] of phosphate incorporated/mol of calmodulin. Phosphorylation of calmodulin was dependent on the presence of certain basic proteins and divalent cations. Some of these basic proteins, i.e. polylysine, polyarginine, polyornithine, protamine sulphate and histones H1 and H2B, were also able to stimulate the phosphorylation of calmodulin via an insulin-independent activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase. Addition of insulin further increased incorporation of 32P into calmodulin. The magnitude of the effect of insulin was dependent on the concentration and type of basic protein used, ranging from 0.5- to 9.0-fold stimulation. Maximal phosphorylation of calmodulin was obtained at an insulin concentration of 10(-10) M, with half-maximal effect at 10(-11) M. Either Mg2+ or Mn2+ was necessary to obtain phosphorylation, but Mg2+ was far more effective than Mn2+. In contrast, maximal phosphorylation of calmodulin was observed in the absence of Ca2+. Inhibition of phosphorylation was observed as free Ca2+ concentration exceeded 0.1 microM, with almost complete inhibition at 30 microM free Ca2+. The Km for calmodulin was approx. 0.1 microM. To gain further insight into the effects of basic proteins in this system, we examined the binding of calmodulin to the insulin receptor and the polylysine. Calmodulin binds to the insulin receptor in a Ca2+-dependent manner, whereas it binds to polylysine seemingly by electrostatic interactions. These studies identify calmodulin as a substrate for the highly purified insulin receptor tyrosine kinase of human placenta. They also demonstrate that the basic proteins, which are required for insulin to stimulate the phosphorylation of calmodulin, do so by a direct interaction with calmodulin.     

Regulation of protein synthesis at the elongation stage. New insights into the control of gene expression in eukaryotes.

There are many reports which demonstrate that the rate of protein biosynthesis at the elongation stage is actively regulated in eukaryotic cells. Possible physiological roles for this type of regulation are: the coordination of translation of mRNA with different initiation rate constants; regulation of transition between different physiological states of a cell, such as transition between stages of the cell cycle; and in general, any situation where the maintenance of a particular physiological state is dependent on continuous protein synthesis. A number of covalent modifications of elongation factors offer potential mechanisms for such regulation. Among the various modifications of elongation factors, phosphorylation of eEF-2 by the specific Ca2+calmodulin-dependent eEF-2 kinase is the best studied and perhaps the most important mechanism of regulation of elongation rate. Since this phosphorylation is strictly Ca(2+)-dependent, and makes eEF-2 inactive in translation, this mechanism could explain how changes in the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration may regulate elongation rate. We also discuss some recent findings concerning elongation factors, such as the discovery of developmental stage-specific elongation factors and the regulated binding of eEF-1 alpha to cytoskeletal elements. Together, these observations underline the importance of the elongation stage of translation in the regulation of the cellular processes essential for normal cell life.     

S100B-Mediated Inhibition of the Phosphorylation of GFAP Is Prevented by TRTK-12

S100B belongs to a family of calcium-binding proteins involved in cell cycle and cytoskeleton regulation. We observed an inhibitory effect of S100B on glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) phosphorylation, when stimulated by cAMP or Ca2+/calmodulin, in a cytoskeletal fraction from primary astrocyte cultures. We found that S100B has no direct effect on CaM KII activity, the major kinase in this cytoskeletal fraction able to phosphorylate GFAP. The inhibition of GFAP phosphorylation is most likely due to the binding of S100B to the phosphorylation sites on this protein and blocking the access of these sites to the protein kinases. This inhibition was dependent on Ca2+. However, Zn2+ could substitute for Ca2+. The inhibitory effect of S100B was prevented by TRTK-12, a peptide that blocks S100B interaction with several target proteins including glial fibrillary acidic protein. These data suggest a role for S100B in the assembly of intermediate filaments in astrocytes.     

Insulin release and protein phosphorylation: possible role of calmodulin

Both Ca2+ and cyclic AMP (cAMP) are implicated in the regulation of insulin release in the pancreatic beta cell. In hamster insulinoma cells used in our laboratory to study the mechanism of insulin release, Ca2+ and cAMP trigger secretion independently. Concomitant with stimulation of the secretory apparatus both cAMP and Ca2+ promote phosphorylation of distinct insulinoma cell proteins. Calmodulin may be involved in the stimulation of insulin release and protein phosphorylation induced by Ca2+ influx. The Ca2+-dependent protein kinase of the insulinoma cell is activated by exogenous calmodulin and blocked by trifluoperazine, and inhibitor of calmodulin action. This drug also inhibits glucose-induced insulin release in pancreatic islets. In insulinoma cells trifluoperazine blocks Ca2+ influx-mediated insulin release and protein phosphorylation with no effect on basal or cAMP-mediated insulin release and protein phosphorylation with no effect on basal or cAMP-mediated secretion. Inhibition of Ca2+ influx-mediated insulin release and protein phosphorylation occurs with nearly identical dose dependence. Inasmuch as trifluoperazine affects voltage-dependent Ca2+ uptake in insulinoma cells, an involvement of calmodulin cannot be directly inferred. The evidence suggests that protein phosphorylation may be involved in the activation of the secretory apparatus by both cAMP and Ca2+. It is proposed that stimulation of insulin release by cAMP and Ca2+ is mediated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, respectively.     

2-Deoxyglucose and NMDA inhibit protein synthesis in neurons and regulate phosphorylation of elongation factor-2 by distinct mechanisms

Cerebral ischaemia is associated with brain damage and inhibition of neuronal protein synthesis. A deficit in neuronal metabolism and altered excitatory amino acid release may both contribute to those phenomena. In the present study, we demonstrate that both NMDA and metabolic impairment by 2-deoxyglucose or inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration inhibit protein synthesis in cortical neurons through the phosphorylation of eukaryotic elongation factor (eEF-2), without any change in phosphorylation of initiation factor eIF-2alpha. eEF-2 kinase may be activated both by Ca(2+)-independent AMP kinase or by an increase in cytosolic Ca2+. Although NMDA decreases ATP levels in neurons, only the effects of 2-deoxyglucose on protein synthesis and phosphorylation of elongation factor eEF-2 were reversed by Na(+) pyruvate. Protein synthesis inhibition by 2-deoxyglucose was not as a result of a secondary release of glutamate from cortical neurons as it was not prevented by the NMDA receptor antagonist 5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo-(a,d)-cyclohepten-5,10-imine hydrogen maleate (MK 801), nor to an increase in cytosolic-free Ca2+. Conversely, 2-deoxyglucose likely activates eEF-2 kinase through a process involving phosphorylation by AMP kinase. In conclusion, we provide evidence that protein synthesis can be inhibited by NMDA and metabolic deprivation by two distinct mechanisms involving, respectively, Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent eEF-2 phosphorylation.     

The in vitro phosphorylation of calmodulin by the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase

Calmodulin, a ubiquitous Ca2+-binding regulatory protein, is phosphorylated exclusively on tyrosine-99 in an insulin-dependent manner by wheat germ lectin-purified preparations of insulin receptors from rat adipocyte plasma membranes. Calmodulin is phosphorylated in the presence of polylysine, histone Hf2b, and protamine sulfate, but not in the absence of these cofactors or in the presence of other basic compounds known to interact with calmodulin, such as mellitin, myelin basic protein, chlorpromazine, trifluoperazine, substance P, glucagon, polyarginine, mastoparin, beta-endorphin, spermine, spermidine, and putrescine. The incorporation of 32P into calmodulin, expressed in terms of moles of phosphate per moles of calmodulin and assayed at calmodulin concentrations of 1.2 and 0.06 microM, is 0.023 + 0.002 and 0.046 + 0.006, respectively. This low stoichiometry is likely due to the relative impurity of the receptor preparation, as similar studies not shown here, using highly purified human insulin receptors, yield a stoichiometry of 1 mol phosphate/mol calmodulin. The time course of phosphorylation is characterized by a short initial lag phase of approximately 5 min, a rapid linear rate from approximately 5 to 40 min, with a steady state of 32P incorporation being approached at approximately 60 min. The K0.5 for ATP is 104 + 18 microM. Phosphorylated calmodulin is partially purified by HPLC on a C4 column using a trifluoroacetic acid/acetonitrile gradient solvent system. Phosphoamino acid analysis and limited thrombin digestion were used to determine that the site of insulin-induced phosphorylation of calmodulin is exclusively on tyrosine-99 regardless of the basic protein cofactor used. Phosphorylated calmodulin does not exhibit the characteristic Ca2+ shift normally observed with calmodulin in electrophoretic gels, an observation that is consistent with this modification affecting the biological activity of the molecule. Thus, the tyrosine phosphorylation of calmodulin represents a potentially important post-translational modification altering calmodulin's ability to regulate a variety of enzymes involved in growth, differentiation, and metabolic regulation.     

Zinc inhibits protein synthesis in neurons. Potential role of phosphorylation of translation initiation factor-2alpha.

In the central nervous system, Zn(2+) is concentrated in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus and has been found to be toxic to neurons. In this study, we show that exposure of cultured cortical neurons from mouse to increasing concentrations of Zn(2+) (10-300 microM) induces a progressive decrease in global protein synthesis. The potency of Zn(2+) was increased by about 2 orders of magnitude in the presence of Na(+)-pyrithione, a Zn(2+) ionophore. The basal rate of protein synthesis was restored 3 h after Zn(2+) removal. Zn(2+) induced a sustained increase in phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of the translation eukaryotic initiation factor-2 (eIF-2alpha), whereas it triggered a transient increase in phosphorylation of eukaryotic elongation factor-2 (eEF-2). Protein synthesis was still depressed 60 min after the onset of Zn(2+) exposure while the state of eEF-2 phosphorylation had already returned to its basal level. Moreover, Zn(2+) was less effective than glutamate to increase eEF-2 phosphorylation, whereas it induced a more profound inhibition of protein synthesis. These results suggest that Zn(2+)-induced inhibition of protein synthesis mainly correlates with the increase in eIF-2alpha phosphorylation. Supporting further that Zn(2+) acts at the initiation step of protein synthesis, it strongly decreased the amount of polyribosomes.     

Role of Intracellular Calcium Stores on the Effect of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors on Phosphorylation of Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein in Hippocampal Slices from Immature Rats

Phosphorylation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in slices from immature rats is stimulated by glutamate via a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR II) and by absence of external Ca2+ in reactions that are not additive (Wofchuk and Rodnight, Neurochem. Int. 24:517-523, 1994). These observations suggested that glutamate, via an mGluR, inhibits Ca(2+)-entry through L-type Ca2+ channels and down-regulates a Ca(2+)-dependent dephosphorylation event coupled to GFAP. Because ryanodine receptors are present on internal Ca2+ stores and are associated with L-type Ca(2+)-channels, we investigated the possibility that the glutamatergic modulation of GFAP phosphorylation involves internal Ca2+ stores regulated by ryanodine receptors and whether the Ca2+ originating from these stores acts in a similar manner to external Ca2+. The results showed that the ryanodine receptor-agonists, caffeine and ryanodine and thapsigargin, all of which in appropriate doses increase cytoplasmic Ca2+, reversed the stimulation of GFAP phosphorylation given by 1S,3R-ACPD, an mGluR II agonist.