Species-specific differential cleavage and polyadenylation of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 hnRNA.

Plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) is the primary physiologic inhibitor of the naturally occurring plasminogen activators. In higher primates two forms of mature PAI-1 mRNA (3.2 kb and 2.2 kb) arise by alternative cleavage and polyadenylation of PAI-1 hnRNA which is regulated in a tissue-specific fashion in humans. In other mammals only the 3.2 kb mRNA has been detected. The putative downstream polyadenylation site in humans that gives rise to the 3.2 kb PAI-1 mRNA consists of three overlapping copies of the consensus polyadenylation sequence while no consensus polyadenylation sequence is found upstream at a position that could generate the shorter mRNA species. To determine whether differential cleavage and polyadenylation of PAI-1 mRNA is due to species-specific differences in trans-acting factors that process PAI-1 mRNA or to the presence of a nonconsensus polyadenylation site acquired recently during primate evolution we prepared plasmids in which the 3' nontranslated region of the human PAI-1 gene or the mouse PAI-1 cDNA was inserted downstream of the neomycin gene in the plasmid pSV2neo. We show that the 3'-nontranslated region of the human PAI-1 gene but not the mouse PAI-1 cDNA conferred alternative cleavage and polyadenylation to the neomycin gene in transfected human Hep G2 cells as well as mouse NIH3T3 and rat L6 cells.     

ERK is a novel regulatory kinase for poly(A) polymerase

Poly(A) polymerase (PAP), which adds poly(A) tails to the 3′ end of mRNA, can be phosphorylated at several sites in the C-terminal domain. Phosphorylation often mediates regulation by extracellular stimuli, suggesting PAP may be regulated by such stimuli. In this study, we found that phosphorylation of PAP was increased upon growth stimulation and that the mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK was responsible for the increase in phosphorylation. We identified serine 537 of PAP as a unique phosphorylation site by ERK. PAP phosphorylation of serine 537 by ERK increased its nonspecific polyadenylation activity in vitro. This PAP activity was also activated by stimulation of ERK with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate in vivo. These data suggest that ERK is a novel regulatory kinase for PAP and further, that PAP activity could be regulated by extracellular stimuli through an ERK-dependent signaling pathway(s).     

Structure of human prostatic acid phosphatase gene.

Two cDNA clones containing the complete protein-coding sequence of 1,188 nucleotides as well as the 5' and 3' non-coding regions of human prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) were isolated and sequenced. The size of PAP mRNAs from benign prostate hyperplasia and cancerous prostate was estimated to be 3.2Kb, indicating that the 3' downstream polyadenylation signal was used. Several genomic clones containing parts of the human PAP gene were isolated and the nucleotide sequence of ten exons and their flanking regions was determined. The protein-coding sequence of the human PAP gene was interrupted by nine introns. The positions of all nine introns present in the human PAP gene were homologous to those of the first nine introns in the human lysosomal acid phosphatase (LAP) gene. However, the last (11th) exon of the LAP gene encoding the COOH-terminal domain, which includes a transmembrane segment, was found to be absent in human PAP gene. Southern blot analysis of ten mammalian genomic DNAs gave multiple EcoRI fragments. The data of human genomic DNAs were consistent with the total length of the PAP gene of at least 50 kilobases.     

Poly (A) polymerases in the nucleus and cytoplasm of frog oocytes: dynamic changes during oocyte maturation and early development.

Poly(A) can be added to mRNAs both in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. During oocyte maturation and early embryonic development, cytoplasmic polyadenylation of preexisting mRNAs provides a common mechanism of translational control. In this report, to begin to understand the regulation of polyadenylation activities during early development, we analyze poly (A) polymerases (PAPs) in oocytes and early embryos of the frog, Xenopus laevis. We have cloned and sequenced a PAP cDNA that corresponds to a maternal mRNA present in frog oocytes. This PAP is similar in size and sequence to mammalian nuclear PAPs. By immunoblotting using monoclonal antibodies raised against human PAP, we demonstrate that oocytes contain multiple forms of PAP that display different electrophoretic mobilities. The oocyte nucleus contains primarily the slower migrating forms of PAP, whereas the cytoplasm contains primarily the faster migrating species. The nuclear forms of PAP are phosphorylated, accounting for their retarded mobility. During oocyte maturation and early postfertilization development, preexisting PAPs undergo regulated phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events. Using the cloned PAP cDNA, we demonstrate that the complex changes in PAP forms seen during oocyte maturation may be due to modifications of a single polypeptide. These results demonstrate that the oocyte contains a cytoplasmic polymerase closely related to the nuclear enzyme and suggest models for how its activity may be regulated during early development.     

Human dioxin-inducible cytosolic NAD(P)H:menadione oxidoreductase. cDNA sequence and localization of gene to chromosome 16

NAD(P)H:menadione oxidoreductase (NMOR1) is a flavoprotein that catalyzes the two-electron reduction of various redox dyes and quinones. It has been proposed that this enzyme may have a protective effect against cancer caused by quinones and their metabolic precursors. We show that tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) treatment of the human hepatoblastoma cell line Hep-G2 produces a 5-fold induction of NMOR activity. Several overlapping human NMOR1 cDNAs were isolated from a human liver lambda gt 11 expression library, and their composite sequence corresponds to an mRNA of 2448 nucleotides containing a continuous open reading frame encoding a protein of 274 residues (molecular weight, 30,880). The corresponding human NMOR1 mRNA has an unusually long 3'-untranslated region (1679 base pairs) with four potential polyadenylation signals (I-IV) at positions 986, 1460, 1838, and 2419 and a single copy of human Alu repetitive sequence between polyadenylation sites II and III. Southern blot analysis of human genomic DNA suggests the presence of a single NMOR1 gene approximately 10 kilobases (KB) in length. The use of three of the aforementioned polyadenylation signals is likely to account for the three different species (2.7, 1.7, and 1.2 kb) of mRNA hybridizing to NMOR1 cDNA in Hep-G2 cells. Indeed several partial cDNA clones were isolated that corresponded to the mRNA derived by use of the proximal polyadenylation signal. Interestingly, the longest (2.7 kb) mRNA species was induced severalfold by TCDD, whereas the other two mRNAs (1.7 and 1.2 kb) were induced to a much lesser extent by TCDD treatment. The human NMOR1 cDNA and protein are 83 and 85% similar to rat liver cytosolic NMOR1 cDNA and protein, respectively. Southern analysis of DNA from 54 human x mouse and 39 human x hamster somatic cell hybrids shows that the NMOR1 gene resides on human chromosome 16.     

Characterization of cDNA clones for human glycophorin A. Use for gene localization and for analysis of normal of glycophorin-A-deficient (Finnish type) genomic DNA

Glycophorin A is the major membrane sialoglycoprotein of human erythrocytes and represents a typical example of a transmembrane glycoprotein. The functional role of this cell-surface component is not known but it represents a receptor for viruses, bacteria and parasites like Plasmodium falciparum. 1. Two cDNA clones encoding glycophorin A have been characterized from human fetal cDNA libraries. The longer cDNA extended from the coding region of glycophorin A (residues 4-131) to the 3' untranslated region which included two polyadenylation signals and a poly(A) tail. 2. The structural gene for glycophorin A is located on chromosome 4, q28-q31 as shown by in situ hybridization, thus confirming the previous localization by genetic linkage analysis. 3. Three distinct mRNA species (1.0 kb, 1.7 kb and 2.2 kb) have been identified in erythroid spleen. Northern blot analyses with a probe directed against the 3' untranslated region of the mRNAs indicated that all these species share a homologous 3' non-coding region and that the first polyadenylation signal downstream the stop codon is not used. 4. Preliminary studies by Southern blot analysis of the genomic DNA from normal En(a+) and rare En(a-) donors suggest that the glycophorin A gene has a complex organization and is largely deleted in donors of the En(a-) phenotype (Finnish type) who lack glycophorin A on their red cells.     

K562 cell sensitization to 5-fluorouracil- or interferon-alpha-induced apoptosis via cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine): fine control of cell apoptosis via poly(A) polymerase upregulation

K562 cells represent a classical model for the study of drug resistance. Induction of apoptosis is accompanied by concomitant distinct modulations of poly(A) polymerase (PAP) and other proteins involved in mRNA maturation. Recent data suggest the involvement of mRNA stability in the induction of specific apoptosis pathways. In this study we used a specific polyadenylation inhibitor, cordycepin (3-deoxyadenosine), to investigate the involvement of polyadenylation in K562 cell apoptosis and drug resistance. The combination of cordycepin with either 5-fluorouracil or interferon-alpha sensitized chemoresistant K562 cells to apoptosis. This sensitization was followed by distinct PAP modulations before and after the appearance of characteristic apoptosis pointers (DNA laddering, DAPI staining, mitochondrial transmembrane potential). PAP modulations appeared essential for K562 sensitization. mRNA polyadenylation therefore seemed to be involved not only in apoptosis but also in drug resistance. Polyadenylation inhibition by cordycepin under certain conditions sensitized chemoresistant K562 cells to apoptosis and thus polyadenylation could prove to be a fine target for overcoming drug resistance.     

Gene expression and prostate specificity of human prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP): evaluation by RNA blot analyses.

A fragment of a complementary DNA (cDNA) clone for human prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) (EC 3.1.3.2.) was used to study the expression of corresponding mRNA in human tissues. The specificity of its expression in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostatic carcinoma tissues were indicated in RNA blot analyses. The PAPcDNA probe did not recognize any specific mRNAs in RNAs extracted from human liver cancer, lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, placenta, breast cancer cells (MCF-7), mononuclear blood cells or acute promyelocytic leukemia cells (HL-60), according to Northern blot analysis. mRNA for PAP was detected in the androgen-dependent human prostatic cancer cell line LNCaP, but not in the androgen-insensitive human prostatic cancer cell line PC-3. In contrast, lysosomal acid phosphatase (LAP) mRNA was detected in both of these human prostatic cancer cell lines. Our findings indicate a high specificity for the PAP gene in prostatic tissue. The mean abundance for the PAPmRNA expression was 0.26 for prostatic carcinoma samples (n = 11) and 0.46 for BPH samples (n = 8) according to slot-blot analysis. The differences observed between the different categories of prostatic tissue in PAPmRNA abundances call for additional studies on regulation of its expression.     

Evolution, expression, and chromosomal location of a novel receptor tyrosine kinase gene, eph.

Partial sequence analysis of the genomic eph locus revealed that the splicing points of kinase domain-encoding exons were completely distinct from those of the other protein tyrosine kinase members reported, suggesting that this is the earliest evolutionary split within this family. In Northern (RNA) blot analysis, the eph gene was expressed in liver, lung, kidney, and testis of rat, and screening of 25 human cancers of various cell types showed preferential expression in cells of epithelial origin. Overexpression of eph mRNA was found in a hepatoma and a lung cancer without gene amplification. Comparison of cDNA sequences derived from a normal liver and a hepatoma that overproduces eph mRNA demonstrated that two of them were completely identical throughout the transmembrane to the carboxy-terminal portions. Southern blot analysis of DNAs from human-mouse hybrid clones with an eph probe showed that this gene was present on human chromosome 7.     

Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of human Na,K-ATPase beta-subunit.

We have isolated a cDNA clone for the beta-subunit of HeLa cell Na,K-ATPase, containing a 2208-base-pair cDNA insert covering the whole coding region of the beta-subunit. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that the amino acid sequence of human Na,K-ATPase exhibited 61% homology with that of Torpedo counterpart (Noguchi et al. (1986) FEBS Lett. in press). A remarkable conservation in the nucleotide sequence of the 3' non-coding region was detected between the human and Torpedo cDNAs. RNA blot hybridization analysis revealed the presence of two mRNA species in HeLa cells. S1 nuclease mapping indicated that they were derived from utilization of two distinct polyadenylation signals in vivo. Total genomic Southern hybridization indicated the existence of only a few, possibly one set of gene encoding the Na,K-ATPase beta-subunit in the human genome.     

CPEB phosphorylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation are catalyzed by the kinase IAK1/Eg2 in maturing mouse oocytes

In both vertebrates and invertebrates, the expression of several maternal mRNAs is regulated by cytoplasmic polyadenylation. In Xenopus oocytes, where most of the biochemical details of this process have been examined, polyadenylation is controlled by CPEB, a sequence-specific RNA binding protein. The activity of CPEB, which is to recruit cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF) and poly(A) polymerase (PAP) into an active cytoplasmic polyadenylation complex, is controlled by Eg2-catalyzed phosphorylation. Soon after CPEB phosphorylation and resulting polyadenylation take place, the interaction between maskin, a CPEB-associated factor, and eIF4E, the cap-binding protein, is destroyed, which results in the recruitment of mRNA into polysomes. Polyadenylation also occurs in maturing mouse oocytes, although the biochemical events that govern the reaction in these cells are not known. In this study, we have examined the phosphorylation of CPEB and have assessed the necessity of this protein for polyadenylation in maturing mouse oocytes. Immunohistochemistry has revealed that all the factors that control polyadenylation and translation in Xenopus oocytes (CPEB, CPSF, PAP, maskin, and IAK1, the murine homologue of Eg2) are also present in the cytoplasm of mouse oocytes. After the induction of maturation, a kinase is activated that phosphorylates CPEB on a critical regulatory residue, an event that is essential for CPEB activity. A peptide that competitively inhibits the activity of IAK1/Eg2 blocks the progression of meiosis in injected oocytes. Finally, a CPEB protein that acts as a dominant negative mutation because it cannot be phosphorylated by IAK1/Eg2, prevents cytoplasmic polyadenylation. These data indicate that cytoplasmic polyadenylation in mouse oocytes is mediated by IAK1/Eg2-catalyzed phosphorylation of CPEB.     

Gene structure of human CD59 and demonstration that discrete mRNAs are generated by alternative polyadenylation.

We have isolated the CD59 gene from human genomic libraries. The gene is distributed over more than 27 x 10(3) base-pairs and consists of one 5'-untranslated exon and three coding exons. The gene structure is similar to that of mouse Ly-6 with the exception of the larger size of CD59 introns. Northern blot analysis using six different probes located in the 3'-region of the gene shows that more than four different CD59 mRNA molecules are generated by alternative polyadenylation. Three of these polyadenylation sites were predicted from previously published cDNA sequences. We have isolated a fourth from Jurkat poly(A)+ RNA by the procedure of rapid amplification of cDNA ends. Alternative polyadenylation may be due to the RNA secondary structure around the typical polyadenylation signal, AAUAAA.     

Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA encoding human prostatic acid phosphatase

lambda gt11 clones encoding human prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) (EC 3.1.3.2) were isolated from human prostatic cDNA libraries by immunoscreening with polyclonal antisera. Sequence data obtained from several overlapping clones indicated that the composite cDNAs contained the complete coding region for PAP, which encodes a 354-residue protein with a calculated molecular mass of 41,126 Da. In the 5'-end, the cDNA codes for a signal peptide of 32 amino acids. Direct protein sequencing of the amino-terminus of the mature protein and its proteolytic fragments confirmed the identity of the predicted protein sequence. PAP has no apparent sequence homology to other known proteins. However, both the cDNA clones coding for human placental alkaline phosphatase and PAP have an alu-type repetitive sequence about 900 nucleotides downstream from the coding region in the 3'-untranslated region. Two of our cDNA clones differed from others at the 5'-ends. RNA blot analysis indicated mRNA of 3.3 kb. We are continuing to study whether acid phosphatases form a gene family as do alkaline phosphatases.     

Characterization of Rat ARPP-21 mRNA: Sequence Analysis, Tissue Distribution, and Regulation

ARPP-21 (cyclic AMP-regulated phosphoprotein; Mr = 21,000) is a cytosolic neuronal phosphoprotein that is highly enriched in the striatum and in other dopaminoceptive regions of the brain. The state of phosphorylation of ARPP-21 is also regulated by vasoactive intestinal peptide in intact cells. We previously reported the sequence analysis of bovine ARPP-21 cDNA and have now characterized rat ARPP-21 cDNA to study further the molecular biology of this protein. The sequence of the coding region is 82 and 85% identical at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively, between the two species. There are two major classes of clones, differing only in the lengths of their 3' untranslated ends, suggesting that the different ARPP-21 mRNAs are derived from the use of alternate polyadenylation sites. Both major mRNA species, 2.6 and 0.7 kb, are present at the highest concentration in the striatum, followed by the cortex, consistent with previous immunocytochemical results. Southern blot analysis reveals a simple hybridization pattern, consistent with the presence of a single rat gene encoding ARPP-21. The steady-state levels of the ARPP-21 mRNAs are developmentally regulated but, in the neonatal and mature animal, are not altered following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the substantia nigra or by pharmacologic treatments that up-regulate the D1- or D2-dopamine receptors.