Initial calcification of the upper permanent incisor in Japanese macaques

Fifteen laboratory-born Japanese macaques,Macaca fuscata (Blyth, 1875), were examined radiographically for the timing of initial crown calcification of the permanent upper first incisors. The mean age of initial calcification was 199.8 days in females and 204.7 days in males; the sexual difference was significant (p<.05). Precocious incisor calcification in females inM. fuscata resembles that inM. nemestrina andHomo sapiens.     

Sexual dimorphism of the canine roots in theMacaca fuscata

In situ radiographic analysis of the maxillary canines ofMacaca fuscata was conducted on 88 specimens in 44 individuals (23 dry skulls and 21 live animals) in order to examine the number of roots. The left canines were then extracted from ten female skulls for measurement, further radiographic examination, and visual morphological observation. The results showed a clear sexual dimorphism in root morphology: all male canines were clearly distinguished as single-rooted from the radiograph, whereas more than 40% of the female canines were double-rooted. Variation was also found among the single-rooted female canines, in that some of these teeth appeared to have a bifurcated canal. This sexual dimorphism in the number of maxillary canine roots and the individual variation found among the females in root and canal morphology are previously unreported for this species. No observations were attempted on mandibular canines, however, because of the incomplete nature of the sample.     

Somatometrical features of Japanese monkeys in the Koshima islet: In viewpoint of somatometry,growth, and sexual maturation

The Japanese monkeys inhabiting Koshima islet were investigated morphologically, and compared with those living in other areas of Japan. The morphological features of the Koshima monkeys are thought to reflect many interrelated factors. Their body size is the smallest inMacaca fuscata fuscata. The lower latitude and the warmer winter of the islet represent the major factors in this small body size. Another physical characteristic is their longer limbs, which may be related to the same environmental factors. The adult males of the Koshima troop show the widest variation, while the variation in the adult females is the narrowest, among the troops ofMacaca fuscata examined. This may be explained either by sexually differentiated growth, that is, males continue to grow considerably after 8 years of age, whereas females do not; or by isolation, that is, males sometimes immigrate into or emigrate from the islet, whereas almost of all the females remain there. It was found that the influence of food limitations on body weight depends on sex and age; babies and juveniles, and adult males did not lose their body weight, but monkeys aged from 3 to 7 years and adult females had lost much weight compared to those of the same ages and sexes measured in 1963 (feeding was not limited). This fact may support the idea of “sex-age-class selection” proposed byMori (1979), but the weight loss pattern could be explained by changes of body composition with growth. The growth of the anterior trunk length, too, was restrained. Sexual maturation in males was delayed by at least one year.     

Male life history in natural populations of Japanese macaques: Migration, dominance rank, and troop participation of males in two habitats

This paper compares male life history parameters of two populations of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata Blyth, 1875), studied without provisioning: Yakushima (M. f. yakui), a subtropical forest habitat in southwestern Japan, and Kinkazan (M. f. fuscata), a temperate, deciduous forest habitat in northeastern Japan. The males of the two sites experienced similar life histories with respect to several traits. Age at natal dispersal was at about 5 years. Average troop residence was about three years. Most males joined troops at the bottom of the rank order, although a few males joined troops at the top rank. Dominance ranks of males tended to rise with the death or departure of higher ranking males. Visiting males accounted for about 41% of observed mating at both sites. However, the two sites differed in the sex ratio of troops, partly because a larger proportion of males apparently lived outside of troops in the Kinkazan site compared to Yakushima. In particular, non-natal young males were absent from the main study troop at Kinkazan. Large within-species variation may exist in the degree to which males associate with troops.     

Male external genitalia and systematic relationships of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata Blyth, 1875)

Penial morphology was studied in six preserved specimens of the Japanese macaque,Macaca fuscata. Structure of the glans penis and baculum inM. fuscata is essentially similar to that in the rhesus macaque,M. mulatta. With age the skin of the penis inM. fuscata apparently becomes progressively more darkly and extensively pigmented, and the baculum becomes progressively longer. One immature specimen examined, with penial skin unpigmented and baculum cartilaginous, appears to be abnormally retarded in penial development. Penial morphology suggests that the allopatric speciesM. fuscata, M. mulatta, M. cyclopis, andM. fascicularis constitute a closely interrelated group. Contrary to a previous report, there is no evidence that penial morphology inM. fuscata is transitional to that inM. radiata andM. sinica. InM. fuscata, M. mulatta, andM. fascicularis, latitudinal variation of body size and relative tail length conforms toBergmann's rule andAllen's rule; external proportions in three specimens ofM. cyclopis only partly conform to this pattern.     

NRAMP1 polymorphism in a hybrid population between Japanese and Taiwanese macaques in Wakayama, Japan

A macaque population produced by the hybridization of native Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) and introduced Taiwanese macaques (M. cyclopis) in Wakayama Prefecture was shown to possess three DNA haplotypes of the natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (NRAMP1). Based on genotyping and comparison with M. fuscata populations, it was revealed that the introduced M. cyclopis population was polymorphic for the NRAMP1 locus. Extensive crossbreeding of the introduced species with the native species was confirmed using this genetic marker and the proportion of M. cyclopis genes was 57.4%. Results of statistical tests suggested non-random mating in the hybrid population.     

Morphometric analysis ofMacaca arctoides andM. thibetana in relation to other macaque species

As a first step in reviewing the classification of the two stump-tailed macaque species,Macaca arctoides andM. thibetana, as compared with other species of the genusMacaca, 72 linear dental and cranial variables of 11 macaque species were examined by morphometric analyses. The results indicate that the two stump-tailed species are the largest of the macaques and although rather similar overall, they exhibit significant differences in the pattern of variation in most of the five skull regions as shown by Principal Components and Canonical Variate Analyses. Euclidean Distances based on Canonical Variate scores indicate that the females ofM. arctoides andM. thibetana are more widely separated than eight other pairs of macaque species, and that the separations of the respective males are greater than those of three other pairs of species. These findings are consistent withFooden's classification of the stump-tailed macaques as two separate species (Fooden, 1976;Fooden et al., 1985). The present results suggest, as other researchers have proposed on the basis of external features, biochemistry and genetics, that the two stump-tailed macaque species andM. assamensis are closely related. The results also tentatively imply associations withM. fuscata andM. sylvanus but these require further study. The findings have implications for the assessment of the various Chinese Pleistocene macaque fossils.     

Pollen dimorphism in threeTeucrium species (Lamiaceae)

In the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands pollen dimorphism was found inTeucrium fruticans L.,T. pseudochamaepitys L., andT. rotundifolium Schreber. Generally, this dimorphism shows two sizes of pollen grains, the smaller more or less collapsed. The percentage of pollen viability is calculated. Differences in size between viable and nonviable pollen grains are similar, being about 40% inT. fruticans andT. pseudochamaepitys, and about 26% inT. rotundifolium. With regard to pollen viability, the percentage of male sterility is higher inT. fruticans, in which from male sterile (ms) plants, 100% nonviable pollen was obtained from every flower observed. InT. pseudochamaepitys andT. rotundifolium with rare exceptions, the percentage of nonviable pollen does not seem to be significant.     

Macaca fuscata develops thin enamel on lingual sides of lower incisors

Among the cercopithecids, papionins were believed to have unique lower incisors without enamel on the lingual surfaces based on analyses by light microscopy. We examined unerupted lower permanent incisors ofMacaca fuscata with scanning electron microscopy and found a lingual thin enamel layer. This seems to be the case for all papionins. Thus, all cercopithecines can be regarded to share this trait which distinguishes cercopithecines from colobines who have substantial enamel layer on the lingual sides of lower incisors. Further study will support this hypothesis. This trait produces self-sharpening chisel-like edges on lower incisors. And the adaptive significance of this chisel-like edged incisor could be understood for scraping and cutting to prepare foods for consumption.     

Chemotaxonomy of theSymphytum officinale agg. (Boraginaceae)

In a chemotaxonomic study of the genusSymphytum pyrrolizidine alkaloids and triterpenes were used as chemotaxonomical markers. A micro-extraction methods was developed for screening compounds of very small pieces of herbarium material. The occurrence of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids symphytine and (acetyl-)lycopsamine is very general forSymphytum taxa. Echimidine is present in someS. officinale L. plants and inS. tanaicense Steven. The triterpene isobauerenol is present inS. officinale, S. bohemicum Schmidt,S. tanaicense and inS. officinale var.lanceolatum Weinm. The chemotaxonomic hypothesis, proposed byGadella and collaborators, based on the presence of the triterpene isobauerenol inS. officinale and its absence inS. asperum Lepech. and the presence of the pyrrolizidine alkaloid echimidine inS. asperum and its absence inS. officinale, can no longer be applied absolutely to theS. officinale species complex. The pyrrolizidine alkaloid and triterpene pattern ofS. officinale (2n = 24) andS. bohemicum (2n = 24) is identical.S. bohemicum is morphologically, cytologically and phytochemically very similar toS. officinale. Furthermore, it readily crosses with the white flowered W. European diploids ofS. officinale. Therefore it seems likely that these two taxa are conspecific.S. tanaicense shows a pyrrolizidine alkaloid and triterpene pattern similar toS. officinale (2n = 40). Also on morphological and cytological grounds they are very similar. It seems highly probable thatS. tanaicense is conspecific withS. officinale (2n = 40) and represents an intraspecific variant only.S. officinale var.lanceolatum contained no pyrrolizidine alkaloids but did contain isobauerenol. This feature points to an origin fromS. officinale.     

Formation of sperm cells inGalium mollugo (Rubiaceae),Trichodiadema setuliferum (Aizoaceae), andAvena sativa (Poaceae)

The formation of sperm cells has been examined ultrastructurally in the tricellular pollen grains ofGalium mollugo L. (Rubiaceae).Trichodiadema setuliferum Schwantes (Aizoaceae), andAvena sativa L. (Poaceae). After detachement from the intine the generative cell of all three species lies free within the vegetative cytoplasm. The two sperm cells are built inTrichodiadema andAvena by a single separating wall, while inGalium mollugo two independent walls are formed. However, both mechanisms separate the two male gametes completely.     

Induction of aldose reductase activity inCandida guilliermondii by pentose sugars

Summary Cell extracts ofCandida guilliermondii grown ind-xylose,l-arabinose,d-galactose,d-glucose,d-mannose and glycerol as sole carbon sources possessed NADPH-dependent aldose reductase activity, but no NADH-dependent activity was detected.d-xylose andl-arabinose were the best inducers of aldose reductase activity. The highest enzyme activity ind-xylose orl-arabinose-grown cells was observed first withl-arabinose followed byd-xylose as substrates of the enzymatic reaction. However, only low activity was found ind-glucose,d-mannose andd-galactose-grown cells, indicating that these carbon sources cause catabolite repression. Enzyme activities induced ind-xylose-grown cells were twice as high as those obtained from the cells under resting conditions. Furthermore, the level of induction of aldose reductase activity depended on the initial concentration ofd-xylose. The present study shows that aldose reductase activity may be efficiently induced by pentose sugars of hemicellulosic hydrolysates and weakly by hemicellulosic hexoses.     

Genetic characterization of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) on Tabuan Island Indonesia

Protein and mitochondrial DNA variations (D-loop region PCR-RFLP) were analyzed for 7 serum and 40 clot samples collected from long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) living on Tabuan Island, Indonesia. Protein polymorphisms were examined electrophoretically for 5 and 12 kinds of protein in serum and erythrocytes, respectively. Each of the protein loci tested showed a monomorphic pattern. Polymorphisms were detected in the analysis of the D-loop-containing region of mtDNA (PCR-RFLP) using 32 restriction endonucleases. Two haplotypes, differing 1.03% in sequence divergence were observed, and both were previously undetected in other local populations. Based on genetic features and differences in pelage color as outlined inFooden's (1995) morphological analysis, the present results suggest that long-tailed macaques on Tabuan Island are a unique population. From the genetic analyses performed here, Tabuan monkeys are considered to be the same species group as those populations of Sumatra and Java (Fooden, 1995).     

A reconsideration of the genusRabdosiella (Lamiaceae,Nepetoideae, Ocimeae)

The two generaPlectranthus andIsodon are compared and found to be very dissimilar.Isodon ist considered to be misplaced inOcimeae subtribePlectranthinae and apparently is more closely related to subtribeHyptidinae. The disjunct genusRabdosiella is compared to these two genera and regarded to be polyphyletic. The AfricanR. calycina (Benth.)Codd is returned toPlectranthus and calledP. calycinus Benth., while the AsianR. ternifolia (D. Don)Codd is placed inIsodon sect.Pyramidium and calledI. ternifolius (D. Don)Kudo.     

sll1722, an unassigned open reading frame of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Synechocystis</Emphasis> PCC 6803, codes for <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">myo</Emphasis>-inositol 1-phosphate synthase

l-myo-Inositol 1-phosphate synthase (EC 5.5.1.4; MIPS) catalyzes conversion of glucose 6-phosphate to l-myo-inositol 1-phosphate, the first and the rate-limiting step in the production of inositol, and has been reported from evolutionarily diverse organisms. Two forms of the enzyme have been characterized from higher plants, viz. cytosolic and chloroplastic, and the presence of MIPS has been earlier reported from the cyanobacteria (e.g. Spirulina sp.), the presumed chloroplast progenitors. The present study demonstrates possible multiple forms of MIPS and identifies the gene for one of them in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Following detection of at least two immunologically cross-reactive MIPS forms, we have been able to identify from the fully sequenced Synechocystis genome an as yet unassigned open reading frame (ORF), sll1722, coding for the approx. 50-kDa MIPS protein, by using biochemical, molecular and bioinformatics tools. The DNA fragment corresponding to sll1722 was PCR-amplified and functional identity of the gene was confirmed by a complementation assay in Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants containing a disrupted INO1 gene for the yeast MIPS. The sll1722 PCR product was cloned in Escherichia coli expression vector pET20b and the isopropyl -d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)-induced overexpressed protein product was characterized following complete purification. Comparison of the sll1722 sequences with other MIPS sequences and its phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Synechocystis MIPS gene is quite divergent from the others.Abbreviations CBB Coomassie Brilliant Blue - EST Expressed sequence tag - G6P d-Glucose 6-phosphate - IPTG Isopropyl -d-thiogalactopyranoside - MIPS l–myo-Inositol 1-phosphate synthase - ORF Open reading frame     

Pollen morphology of the cypripedioid orchids

Pollen morphology of the four traditional genera (Paphiopedilum, Selenipedium, Cypripedium, Phragmipedium) comprising the cypripedioid orchids indicates that the monads are sulcate, more or less smooth-surfaced, and covered by a non-acetolysis resistant layer called elastoviscin. Evidence from ultrathin sections of pollen grains shows that typical exine layers are present only inSelenipedium, modified inPhragmipedium and absent inPaphiopedilum and most species ofCypripedium; that a small, inconspicuous portion of the grain surface is constructed as a sulcus; and that the pollen grain wall acts as a sponge in rapidly absorbing water. Several instances of parallelisms between non-related families and among different groups of orchids are reported and new ideas on the evolution of theCypripedioideae are presented.Dedicated to Prof. DrE. Tschermak-Woess on the occasion of her 70th birthday.Reprint requests toM. Hesse.     

Tail-Length Evolution in Fascicularis-Group Macaques (Cercopithecidae: Macaca)

In the four species of macaques that constitute the fascicularis-group, relative tail length generally decreases with increasing latitude, in accord with Allen's Rule. Although this generalization applies to Macaca mulatta in the northern part of its range—north of ca. 26°N, it does not apply south of ca. 26°N, where the tail is anomalously short in Macaca mulatta. This suggests that the anomalously short-tailed population of Macaca mulatta did not originate within its present latitudinal range, but instead dispersed there from farther north. The anomalously short-tailed population apparently replaced a now-extinct longer-tailed population, from which founders of insular Macaca cyclopis previously had been derived. Southward dispersal of the anomalously short-tailed population of Macaca mulatta, and correlated extinction of the longer-tailed population that it apparently replaced, may have been induced by a major glacial advance.     

Contrasting reproductive parameters ingalago senegalensis braccatus andG. s. moholi

Reproductive parameters were compared between two subspecies of the lesser bushbaby, Galago senegalensis braccatusand G. s. moholi.Adult body weights for both male and female G. s. braccatuswere significantly higher than adult body weights of G. s. moholi,as were infant birth weights. The mean gestation length of G. s. braccatuswas significantly longer than that of G. s. moholi. G. s. moholihad a higher incidence of twinning than G. s. braccatus.Puberty in females occurred significantly later in G. s. braccatusthan in G. s. moholi.These differences are of such magnitude that hybridization of G. s. braccatuswith G. s. moholiwould be unlikely. These differences, if augmented by additional evidence, may warrant distinction of the two subspecies at the species level.     

Functional differentiation of fore- and hindlimb muscles inMacaca fuscata determined on the basis of enzymatic activities

When the functional differentiation of 83 kinds of limb and trunk muscles ofMacaca fuscata was investigated on the basis of the activities of two glycolytic enzymes [lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and aldolase] and one oxidative enzyme [succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)], the forelimb rather than the hindlimb muscles proved have higher oxidative activities. These results indicated that, inMacaca fuscata, the forelimb muscles have a higher resistance to fatigue, and that the hindlimb muscles have a higher tetanic tension on the basis of the relationships between enzymatic activities and functional properties of the muscle fiber types. These findings were interpreted in relation to the fact thatMacaca fuscata is a quadrupedal primate with arboreal habits, as compared with nonprimate terrestrial quadrupeds. The two-joint muscles and the superficial muscles contract more rapidly than do the other muscles in the hindlimb, thereby suggesting that both types of muscles readily adapt to quick movement.     

Reliability of the emotions profile index,primate form,withPapio hamadryas,Macaca fuscata,and twoSaimiri species

An evaluation of the reliability of the Emotions Profile Index (EPI), primate form, was carried out using two captive species of Old World monkeys (Papio hamadryas andMacaca fuscata) and two species (?) of New World monkeys (Saimiri sciureus andS. boliviensis). Observers, some familiar with the animals and some unfamiliar, rated members of the four groups at different times. Inter-rater reliability was high for most members of all species, but only when the observers were familiar with the animals. Assessments remained stable over at least one year.