乌干达野生动物研究中心外来黑猩猩融入笼养群体的过程

1967至1997的30年间,生活在非洲热带地区自然栖息地的野生黑猩猩数量由60万降至不足20万,至今这个数字仍在减少,因此引起了全球的关注并急需要开展迁地保护。笼养黑猩猩与野外种群一样营群居生活,为了有效进行野生黑猩猩的迁地保护,将野外捕获的野生黑猩猩个体成功引入已在动物园的黑猩猩群体中十分必要。2004年10月至2005年3月,乌干达野生动物研究中心首先开展了这一实验。同时为更好地了解外来黑猩猩融入笼养群体的过程,2006年9月至2007年1月间收集其活动数据。选取5只黑猩猩个体并记录它们的食性、行为、体重变化及身体健康状况。除直接观察和记录外,与兽医和研究中心管理人员进行合作,以获取较多笼养个体的信息。我们发现,野生个体比笼养个体多病,因此影响了它们的取食、社会行为及活动水平。尽管笼养黑猩猩有人照料,但仍具备野生个体的行为,所以,理解外来黑猩猩融入笼养群体的过程对于黑猩猩的迁地保护和就地保护是非常重要的。     

Successful feeding enrichment for captive chimpanzees

An analysis of a feeding enrichment program for captive chimpanzees was completed to determine the effects of that program on the incidence of agonistic and abnormal behaviors by using 41 adult chimpanzees in six social groups. Four feeding enrichment procedures were implemented simultaneously in the experimental phase of this ABA design study. The procedures were planned to elicit time-consuming, noncompetitive feeding, theorizing a consequent reduction in agonism and detrimental abnormal behaviors typically occurring in captive chimpanzees. The 270 hours of data were collected over a 6-month period. A multivariate analysis of variance result supported the hypothesis, as the barrage of feeding enrichment techniques significantly reduced agonism and abnormal behaviors. This study's significance lies in its application of the scientific method to improving the husbandry of captive primates.     

Greeting behavior during party encounters in captive chimpanzees

Party encounter situations were experimentally produced in a group of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at the Primate Research Institute of Kyoto University, Japan. During weekends all subjects (two adult males and five adult females) usually stayed together in the rooms (Baseline condition). Under experimental conditions, we shut passages between rooms to divide the subjects into two groups. We examined the effects of temporal separation of group members on affiliative interactions, aggressive interactions, and simple proximity. The frequency of affiliative interactions between male and female chimpanzees and between female chimpanzees increased when they encountered one another after separation, irrespective of male identity or housing history. Therefore we considered affiliative interactions between males and females during party encounters as being the response between separated individuals. The same tendency was not found in the frequency of affiliative interactions between females or between males. Unlike affiliative interactions, neither aggressive interactions nor simple proximity were influenced by separation.     

The behavior of a group of captive pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus)

A group of captive pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) was studied in the San Diego Zoological Gardens. The behavior patterns that these animals exhibit are described. Each of these behavior patterns is compared to those described for wild and captive common chimpanzees (P. troglodytes). Differences in behavior between these two species are attributed to specialization of the pygmy chimpanzee to a rain forest habitat and to a monogamous social system.     

Activity budgets of wild female chimpanzees in different reproductive states

Activity budgets of wild female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) when lactating were compared with those during estrus and anestrus. Five anestrous females, seven estrous females, and three lactating females in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, were the subject of focal sampling. Time spent for feeding, resting, and moving was examined. For each of these three categories of activity, there was no significant difference of time spent for each activity between lactating females and either estrous or anestrous females. The females spent about 30% of their daytime feeding, about 40% resting, and about 30% moving. One of the reasons for the lack of difference might be the type of parties that females attended when they were observed. In most cases, the females were seen in large bisexual parties. Although lactating females are expected to need more nutrition than cycling females and this might affect their activity budget, the party type they attended might also affect the budget. Received: January 17, 2000 / Accepted: June 22, 2000     

Features of meat digestion by captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

The pronounced carnivory of many human populations contrasts sharply with feeding habits of other Hominoidea. Of extant great apes, only chimpanzees (Pan spp.) actively seek out vertebrate prey, but meat is only a minor portion of their diet. Some accounts suggest that wild chimpanzees digest prey inefficiently. To investigate the capacity of chimpanzees to digest meat, feeding trials were carried out on three captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) using a fixed amount of nonpurified diet with and without a predetermined amount of boned cooked chicken. The results showed no significant differences in the rate of passage of digesta and digestion of diets with and without chicken. Meat ingestion did not change the nitrogen (N) concentration of feces or the total amount of N defecated. Visual inspection of fecal matter showed no evidence of undigested meat. Taken together, the results indicate that chimpanzees are able to digest meat of the type and quantity consumed during these trials.     

Uprooted trees facilitate the psychological well-being of captive chimpanzees

After the introduction of uprooted trees to their environment, the behavior of 28 socially housed, laboratory chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) was studied for five months. Subjects used the tree during 41.9% of the data points collected during the first day trees were introduced. Thereafter, the mean for tree use dropped to 3.5% and remained fairly consistent. Immature subjects used the trees significantly more than did adult subjects, as measured by the Mann-Whitney U-test. No sex difference was detected. The trees elicited a variety of species-appropriate behaviors. Increasing the similarity between the behavior of captive and wild chimpanzees can be viewed as promoting the psychological well-being of the captive animals.     

Environmental enrichment to address behavioral differences between wild and captive black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata)

I compared the behaviors of wild Varecia variegata living in a Malagasy rain forest with those of caged groups living in zoos in the United Kingdom in order to design environmental enrichment to encourage more natural behaviors. Comparisons were made between wild and captive animals in terms of activity budgets (instantaneously sampled at 1-min intervals) and social and solitary behaviors, which were continuously recorded for focal individuals. I followed the same sampling protocol during behavioral enrichment experiments, with additional monitoring of the amount and type of food consumed, and with more detailed observations of feeding behavior. No significant differences were found in resting or moving between wild and captive V. variegata. However, captive V. variegata spent more time on self-grooming and social behaviors, and less time feeding than wild V. variegata. There was also a lack of manual manipulation of food items. Behavioral enrichment experiments were carried out in which whole rather than chopped fruit was provided and presented in a more naturalistic manner. With this method of dietary presentation, manual manipulation of dietary items increased. Time spent feeding also increased significantly. Captive conservation breeding programs should not be wholly concerned with maintaining a diverse gene pool-they should also be concerned with conserving species-typical behaviors, especially if they are to produce behaviorally intact captive animals that can be reintroduced to the wild with minimal training, financial resources, and loss of individuals.     

Reproductive aging in captive and wild common chimpanzees: factors influencing the rate of follicular depletion

We examine and discuss evidence of contrasting differences in fertility patterns between captive and wild female chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, as they age; in the wild females reproduce in their 40s, but captive studies suggest that menopause occurs around that time. Thus, despite the increased longevity generally observed in captive populations reproductive life span is shortened. We outline a hypothesis to explain the apparent differential pace of reproductive decline observed between wild and captive populations. The breeding schedules of captive primates may contribute to accelerated reproductive senescence because continuous cycling in captive animals results in early depletion of the ovarian stock and premature senescence. Available evidence supports the hypothesis that women with patterns of high oocyte loss experience earlier menopause. Chimpanzees in captivity live longer, and thus, similar to humans, they may experience follicular depletion that precedes death by many years. In captivity, chimpanzees typically have an early age at menarche and first birth, shorter interbirth intervals associated with short lactational periods as young mature faster, and nursery rearing, which allows mothers to begin cycling earlier. Variables typical of wild chimpanzee populations, including late age at menarche and first birth, long interbirth intervals associated with prolonged lactational periods, and a long period of female infertility after immigration, spare ovulations and may be responsible for the later age at reproductive termination. Finally, we describe and discuss the timing of specific reproductive landmarks that occur as female chimpanzees age, distinguishing between functional menopause (age at last birth) and operational menopause (end of cycling). Am. J. Primatol. 71:271–282, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Polymerase chain reaction detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes

Background For veterinary management of non‐human primates in captivity, and conservation of wild‐living primates, management of their health risks is necessary. Incidences of pathogenic bacteria in the fecal specimens are considered as one of the useful indicators for non‐invasive health monitoring. Methods We carried out the detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees by the rapid polymerase chain reaction method. Results The bacterium was detected in most fecal specimens (80%) in captive chimpanzees. Contrarily, the detection rate in the wild chimpanzees was low, with 23% (n = 12) of 53 fecal samples from the Bossou group, Guinea, and 1.2% (1/81) in the Mahale group, Tanzania. Conclusions These results show that the intestinal microflora differs between Pan populations under various living conditions, being influenced by their diet and environment.     

Model life table for captive chimpanzees

Mortality statistics from three captive populations of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) were combined to generate standard model life tables for each sex in this species. The model is compared to an estimate of survivorship of a group of wild animals, and is applied to an incomplete data set to illustrate how the model may be used to extend estimates of mortality statistics to missing older ages. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Enclosure environment affects the activity budgets of captive Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

Individuals adapt to changes in their environment, such as food availability and temperature, by adjusting the amount of time spent in different behavioral activities. These adjustments in behavior should vary across age-sex class according to specific physiological and social needs. We studied the activity budgets of three social Japanese macaque groups inhabiting either vegetated or nonvegetated enclosures in order to compare the effects of access with vegetation, as both food and substrate on resting, feeding, grooming and moving activities over a 12-month period. Daily access to natural foods for monkeys in the vegetated enclosure seems to be largely responsible for the differences in daily time budgets of these three groups. Resting time in all three groups was longer than the time devoted to other activities. Resting and moving time in the two nonvegetated enclosures was significantly longer than in the vegetated enclosure. In contrast, feeding and grooming time was significantly longer in the vegetated enclosure. Seasonal variation in time spent feeding, resting and grooming was significantly effected by enclosure type. In all three enclosures, immatures, particularly females, spent more time feeding and moving, whereas adults spent more time resting. Significant monthly variation in time spent by age-sex class was noted only for feeding and resting. Interestingly, in the vegetated enclosure, time spent feeding on natural vegetation was equal to the amount of time spent feeding on provisioned food. This suggests that factors other than energetic and nutritional needs may be important determinants of the activity budget of the species. These results have important implications for the enrichment of captive primates and our understanding of the maintenance of activity patterns by primates in the wild.     

Reclassification of captive chimpanzees as endangered would cost lives

A reclassification of captive chimpanzees as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) would have devastating consequences on critical areas of basic biomedical research for which chimpanzees are uniquely suitable as animal models. It also would have a negative impact on the survival of wild chimpanzees and the preservation of the species.     

Responses to novel foods in captive chimpanzees

Hesitancy to eat novel foods hampers the immediate enlargement of the diet but serves to limit the risk of ingesting toxic foods. Neophobia has been systematically investigated in only a few primate species, in which it appears to be affected by social influences. Surprisingly, little is known about neophobia in chimpanzees. We studied the response of eight adult captive chimpanzees to 16 foods (foods commonly eaten by humans and never tasted before by chimpanzees). Each novel food was presented twice to the chimpanzee by a familiar or an unfamiliar human. Between the two trials the human ate the food face to face with the chimpanzee (demonstration). Results showed that some foods were almost unanimously accepted, whereas others were not. Moreover, there were marked interindividual differences in food acceptance and consumption; chimpanzees ranged from being almost completely neophobic to accepting almost all foods. Familiarity with the human and the human's demonstration did not affect responses to the foods. The humans' predictions concerning the chimpanzees' acceptance of the different foods were rather good; furthermore, in seven cases out of eight the humans' preferences did not correlate with their predictions on the chimpanzees' preferences. The finding that most captive chimpanzees are initially cautious toward novel foods supports the little information there is regarding this subject in wild chimpanzees. However, the lack of influence of the humans' familiarity and demonstration on the response to food by the chimpanzees calls for more naturalistic studies, in which social influences are provided by group members. Since novel stimuli provide sensory stimulation and elicit exploration and social interest, occasional presentation of novel foods could be a promising and cheap device for feeding enrichment. Zoo Biol 21:539–548, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Development of guidelines for assessing obesity in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Many captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are subjectively considered to be overweight or obese. However, discussions of obesity in chimpanzees are rare in the literature, despite the acknowledged problem. No study to date has systematically examined obesity in captive chimpanzees. This project develops guidelines for defining obesity in captive chimpanzees through the examination of morphometric and physiologic characteristics in 37 adult female and 22 adult male chimpanzees. During each animal's biannual physical exam, morphometric data was collected including seven skinfolds (mm), body mass index (BMI), waist‐to‐hip ratio (WHR), and total body weight (kg). The morphometric characteristics were correlated with triglycerides and serum glucose concentration, to test the utility of morphometrics in predicting relative obesity in captive chimpanzees. Abdominal skinfold (triglyceride: F=3.83, P=0.05; glucose: F=3.83, P=0.05) and BMI (triglyceride: F=10.42, p=0.003; glucose: F=6.20, P=0.02) were predictive of increased triglycerides and serum glucose in females; however no morphometric characteristics were predictive of relative obesity in males. Results suggest that no males in this population are overweight or obese. For females, there were additional significant differences in morphometric (skinfolds, BMI, WHR, total body weight) and physiologic measurements (systolic and diastolic blood pressure, red blood cells) between individuals classified overweight and those classified non‐overweight. Skinfold measurements, particularly abdominal, seem to be an accurate measure of obesity and thus potential cardiovascular risk in female chimpanzees, but not males. By establishing a baseline for estimated body fat composition in female captive chimpanzees, institutions can track individuals empirically determined to be obese, as well as obesity‐related health problems. Zoo Biol 0:1–12, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Epidemiological study of zoonoses derived from humans in captive chimpanzees

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) in wildlife are major threats both to human health and to biodiversity conservation. An estimated 71.8 % of zoonotic EID events are caused by pathogens in wildlife and the incidence of such diseases is increasing significantly in humans. In addition, human diseases are starting to infect wildlife, especially non-human primates. The chimpanzee is an endangered species that is threatened by human activity such as deforestation, poaching, and human disease transmission. Recently, several respiratory disease outbreaks that are suspected of having been transmitted by humans have been reported in wild chimpanzees. Therefore, we need to study zoonotic pathogens that can threaten captive chimpanzees in primate research institutes. Serological surveillance is one of several methods used to reveal infection history. We examined serum from 14 captive chimpanzees in Japanese primate research institutes for antibodies against 62 human pathogens and 1 chimpanzee-borne infectious disease. Antibodies tested positive against 29 pathogens at high or low prevalence in the chimpanzees. These results suggest that the proportions of human-borne infections may reflect the chimpanzee’s history, management system in the institute, or regional epidemics. Furthermore, captive chimpanzees are highly susceptible to human pathogens, and their induced antibodies reveal not only their history of infection, but also the possibility of protection against human pathogens.     

Anti‐helminth‐induced changes in the prevalence of entodiniomorphid ciliates in semi‐captive chimpanzees

Ciliates are some of the most abundant gut fauna in wild chimpanzees. However, their presence in captive populations is usually low presumably due to anti‐helmintic prophylaxis or feeding on low fibre diet. We studied a semi‐captive colony of chimpanzees at the Sweetwaters Sanctuary in Kenya subject to routine prophylactic dose of albendazole to clear chimpanzees of parasitic helminths. Fresh faecal samples from known individuals were collected before and subsequently after prophylaxis. The samples were fixed in 10% formalin and examined by the sedimentation method. Troglodytella abrassarti had 42.5% prevalence whereas other ciliates had 65% prevalence. The prevalence of the T. abrassarti and other ciliates significantly declined immediately after prophylaxis and then rose slowly thereafter. Our results suggest that ciliates are susceptible to anti‐helmintic prophylaxis and that treatment may eliminate ciliates or inhibit their proliferation within the host subsequently lowering their prevalence in the population. Variation in prevalence was not influenced by the age of the host. However, a steady recovery of ciliate prevalence was lower for male compared to female hosts. Our results imply that the intervals between prophylactic regimes could be prolonged differently for males and females to increase the prevalence of ciliates in captive populations.     

Effects of housing differences upon activity budgets in captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)

Activity budgets of captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) were assessed from 500 hours of observational data obtained at the Duke University Primate Center (Durham, NC). Data were examined for behavioral differences according to gender, availability of intergroup contact, subspecies, indoor/outdoor housing, and enclosure size. Results showed few differences between the activity budgets of males and females. Several differences found in conjunction with availability of intergroup contact appeared to relate more to subspecific, than to contact, differences. Sifakas housed outdoors were more active, spending less time resting and more time in locomotion, feeding, and playing than sifakas housed indoors. The findings of this study implicate outdoor housing as a primary factor in stimulating activity in these rare prosimian primates.     

Within-group differences in captive Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana diana) behaviour

This case study examines the activity budgets of captive Diana monkeys (Cercopithecus diana diana) and discusses results in the context of what is known regarding captive and wild-type behaviour in this species and other guenons. The activities of a family group of Diana monkeys (two parents and four offspring) housed at Edinburgh Zoo, UK, were quantified using a 5-min interval scan sampling technique. The 5100 observation points collected showed that the subjects spent the largest proportion of their time observing (approx. 46%), followed by feeding (approx. 15%), playing (approx. 11%), mutual grooming (approx. 8%) and resting (approx. 7%). The daily activity budgets for each of the subjects were tallied and, at the end of the 10-day observation period, used to produce a data matrix consisting of nine behaviour variables per subject. Clear among-individual differences in activity were identified with canonical discriminant function analysis. This multivariate approach illustrated how the combined behaviours of the parent male were distinct from those of the rest of the family group. Within the remainder of the group, the three youngest offspring displayed similar activity budgets, whereas the overall behaviour of the eldest offspring (a female) was between that of its siblings and her mother.     

丰容对圈养雌性岩羊活动时间分配的影响

为了探究环境丰容和食物丰容对岩羊行为和活动节律的影响,于2017年3月—7月,以上海动物园的5只雌性岩羊(Pseudois nayaur)为研究对象,设计环境丰容和食物丰容试验,利用瞬时扫描法对岩羊进行行为学观察,分析岩羊丰容前后昼间行为的变化。结果表明:经过环境丰容,岩羊的运动行为和反刍行为显著增加,卧息行为和其他行为显著减少,取食行为无明显变化。在环境丰容基础上,开展食物丰容后,运动行为明显减少,取食行为明显增加。卧息行为有所减少、反刍行为和其他行为有所增加,但变化均不明显。丰容后岩羊的昼间活动节律也发生了变化。取食行为呈现2个高峰期(8:00—11:00和15:00—18:00),取食行为普遍提高;运动行为在13:30—17:30时段较丰容前提前一个小时左右发生;卧息行为有相似的波动规律,但丰容后其昼间发生频次在16:00之前均降低;反刍行为波动最大,呈现出明显的2个高峰期(6:00—9:00和10:00—15:00)。试验表明,在进行环境和食物丰容后,岩羊的活动增加,优化了时间分配,福利状况得到了有效改善。