Histo-topography of the lymphoid tissue of children's trachea

By means of certain microscopical methods areas from the middle third of trachea have been examined in children, died from various causes not connected with diseases in the pulmonary pathways. At birth in the mucous membrane of the trachea there is no lymphoid tissue. Its elements in a small amount appear at the initial stage of the suckling period. In two-month-old infants the first signs of lymphoid perinucleoli appear. During the early period of infancy the main regions of the lymphoid cells localization are clearly defined, in the area of some ducts of the tracheal glands including. In children, whose age corresponds to the first period of childhood, lymphoid accumulations have a pattern, resembling similar structures of the trachea in mature persons and the greatest concentration of cells, in comparison to the preceding groups of children in the ages examined.     

Local characteristics and interrelations between glands and lymphoid conglomerations in the esophageal wall

Proper glands in 248 total preparations and lymphoid accumulations in 112 preparations have been investigated macro-microscopically in the human oesophageal preparations at various age. The organs have been obtained from 152 corpses of persons died from the death by violence and having no pathological changes in the organs of digestive and immune systems. The lymphoid tissue in the oesophageal wall is presented as accumulations of cells (prenodules++) and as diffusely scattered immune-competent cells. The glands and lymphoid accumulations are oriented as longitudinal rows. The lymphoid tissue accumulations are situated near to the glandular ducts, because the latter can serve as pathways for penetrating antigenic material into the organ's wall. The amount of the glands is maximal mature and elderly age, and that of lymphoid accumulations--at the second childhood. The dimensions of the gland body increase in the cranio-caudal direction, while the lymphoid accumulations, just the reverse, have their maximal dimensions in the upper third of the oesophagus. The gland bodies in places of the organ's anatomical narrowings in the section have more alveoles and are situated nearer to the covering epithelium than the glands in the neighbouring areas of the wall.     

The development of lymphoid and haemopoietic tissues in pig fetuses

This paper presents the results of the development of lymphatic and haemopoietic organs in pig fetuses of various ages. The thymus appears to be the first lymphatic organ in these fetuses as well as in other animal species so far studied. On the 77th day the thymus is fully morphologically developed. The accumulations of lymphocytes in the spleen appear on the 70th day. The development of periarteriolar formations takes place around the 84th day of gestation. Further development of lymphoid tissue in the lymph nodes, tongue (tonsilla lingualis) and intenstine is described. Lymphatic follicles were observed both in the tongue and the small intestine on the 77th day. The dynamics of haemopoietic activity in the liver and bone marrow is characterized. The germinal centers in lymphoid folicles were never observed as well as cells of the plasmatic series.     

Lymphoid structures in the wall of the human esophagus during postnatal ontogenesis

Lymphoid aggregates in the wall of the human oesophagus have been studied in corpses of 107 persons died a sudden death and who had not any disease in the digestive organs and in the immune system (total plane preparations, slices stained with hematoxylin--eosin, azure-2-eosin and after van Gieson). The lymphoid aggregates are arranged as longitudinal chains. Their number increases from birth towards the second childhood, and then decreases towards the old age. In the upper oesophageal parts these aggregates are more numerous than in the lower ones. The lymphoid aggregates look like convexoconvex lenses. Their size is maximal during the second childhood, the longitudinal dimensions are nearly two times as great as their thickness. With time, the sizes of the formations become small. The arrangement density of the lymphoid cells in the subepithelial layer of the mucous membrane is maximal in newborns, and then it decreases up to the old age. The lymphoid aggregates are situated in the oesophageal wall, mainly, near the ducts of the oesophageal glands.     

Lymphoid structures in the female endometrium in ontogenesis

Lymphoid formations of human endometrium are presented in stroma of the uterine corpus mucous membrane as lymphoid cells (so called diffuse lymphoid tissue), lymphoid nodules and interepithelial lymphocytes in glandular and covering epithelium++. Peculiarities in organization of these formations are seen as slight saturation of the endometrium with lymphoid tissue, small size of lymphoid nodules++. The lymphoid structures in question reach their maximal development during the adolescent and first mature age. During the generative period among diffusely arranged T-lymphocytes sub-populations of T-suppressors predominate. This is probably connected with participation of suppressive mechanisms of local immunity in ensuring blastocyst implantation.     

Age-related aspects of the anatomy and topography of the human tubal tonsil

The tubal tonsil (TT) has been investigated in 60 preparations of the auditory tube (right and left), obtained from 30 corpses of persons at various age, those died from traumas and having neither any pathological changes in their acoustic organs, nor chronic inflammatory diseases by the time of death. The TT is presented as a solid or interrupted lymphoid tissue plate, situating in the mucosal membrane in the area of the pharyngeal opening to some extent in the inferior, posterior and anterior walls of the auditory tube. In newborns the TT is presented as a diffuse lymphoid tissue, where lymphoid nodules begin to form. The greatest amount of the lymphoid nodules in the TT are revealed in the infantile age and this sign is kept during subsequent age periods, including the first period of mature age. During these age periods on the surface of the mucosal membrane in the area of the pharyngeal opening numerous small eminences are seen--tubercles, corresponding in their position to lymphoid nodules under them. Beginning from the second mature period and up to old age the amount and size of the lymphoid nodules in the TT decreases. At that time on the surface of the mucosal membranes in the area of TT only single tubercles are revealed.     

Lymphoid nodules of the urinary bladder in man

Basing on macro- microscopical investigation of the urinary bladder in 94 persons, died at the period of birth up to old years and by the time of death having not any disease of the urinary apparatus, structure and topography of the lymphoid nodules, their amount, density of distribution in the mucous membrane of various parts of the organ have been studied. The germinative centers in the lymphoid nodules of the urinary bladder are not revealed. The external appearance of the nodules is not the same; some have clear contours others have no clearly manifested borders. We call them prenodules. The lymphoid nodules are situated near to each other without any definite order. And only near the ureteral openings they are always revealed in a small amount, in the area of the triangle; they are oriented, as a rule, from the ureteral openings towards the exit from the urinary bladder. The amount of the lymphoid nodules in the organ's wall varies (at an average) from 18, in newborns, up to 415, in adolescents, and up to 129, in old persons. Distribution density of the lymphoid nodules in the fundal area of the urinary bladder is somewhat greater, than in its superior parts. The size of the lymphoid nodules during all age periods is not more than 900 mcm.     

The microscopic anatomy of the human pharyngeal tonsil in the postnatal period of ontogeny

Histological sections of the pharyngeal tonsil (PhT) have been investigated in 55 corpses of persons of both sex and various age, that had no disease connected with lesions of the PhT by the time of their death. The aim of the work is to determine relative areas of each structural element of the PhT in comparison to the whole section area taken as 100%. The PhT lymphoid tissue reached its maximal relative development at the first childhood. Then the lymphoid tissue area in the PhT histological sections decreases gradually, making already in the second mature age one half of the tonsil section area, and in the elderly age--nearly one-fourth. The decrease of the relative lymphoid tissue area takes place at the expense of decreasing area of the lymphoid nodules. The relative area of the connective stroma increases inversely to the relative decrease of the lymphoid tissue area parameters. The germinative centers in the lymphoid nodules are absent in newborns and old persons. The greatest value of the relative area of the germinative centers falls to the early infancy. The lymphoid nodules with the germinative centers, according to their relative area during all age periods, besides the newborn period, the second mature, elderly and old age periods, essentially exceed the area, that occupy the nodules without the germinative centers on the PhT sections.     

Microscopic anatomy of small-intestinal lymphoid patches in children and adults

Longitudinal histological sections of lymphoid patches (LP) in the small intestine, stained after van Gieson and with hematoxylin--eosin, obtained from 105 corpses of persons at the age of 0 up to 90 years have been studied. The LP parenchyma is presented as accumulation of lymphoid nodules++ with a germinative center, or without it and diffuse lymphoid tissue. The lymphoid nodules++ situate both in the mucous membrane and in the submucous tela of the small intestine. The area of the LP components in the newborns is the greatest--84% from the whole area of the LP section. During the human life it decreases and by the old age it makes 47%. The lymphoid nodules++ area with the germinative center in the newborns makes 21% from the area of the LP section, in children from 1 to 3 years of age it increases up to 50%, then it gradually decreases and in the elderly age it makes only 3.8%. The diffuse lymphoid tissue in the LP composition is revealed in all age periods. Size of the lymphoid nodules++ patches, situating in the jejunum and ileum walls in the newborns is the same. In children at the age of 10 days--12 years the LP nodules++ in the ileum are larger than those in the sejunum. The size of the LP noduli increase up to the period of the second childhood then decreases. The height of the lymphoid noduli in persons of mature, elderly and old ages decreases twice in comparison with the children of 3-12 years of age.     

The immune system and age

Basing on numerous facts, obtained during last years at investigation of the immune system organs, a definite idea has been formed on peculiarities of their structure during certain stages of human ontogenesis. The immune organs appear early in embryogenesis and by birth they have reached their morphological maturation. This is evident as formation of diffuse lymphoid tissue in lymphoid noduli, that can have germinative centers, where young cells of the lymphoid line are formed. The immune system organs develop especially quickly after birth during first years of the postnatal ontogenesis. The peak in development of the organs of immunogenesis, amount and size of the lymphoid noduli occurs during the childhood and adolescent age. Each immune organ has its peculiarities that are determined by their place in the organism, value and intensity of antigenic effect. Beginning from the adolescence and youth amount of the lymphoid tissue and lymphoid noduli in the organs decreases, in their place connective and adipose tissue grows out.     

Structure of the mesenteric lymph nodes in fetuses and offspring of white rats under the effect of indomethacin on the mother-fetus system

Mesenteric lymph nodes in fetuses and offspring of white rats have been studied during various age periods after indomethacin injection in doses 2.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg daily from the 18th up to 21st day of pregnancy. Dose-dependent retardation in formation of main structures of the mesenteric lymph nodes, decreasing amount of the lymphoid type cells have been revealed. Retardation in the capsule, sinuses and reticular fibers of the node takes place, as well as decrease in lympho- and plasmocytopoiesis. It is more pronounced after indomethacin in dose 2.5 mg/kg. Simultaneously, formation of the cerebral substance and appearance of lymphoid nodules and their germinative centers are delayed. After the drug effect (2.5 mg/kg), up to the age of 2 weeks the amount of tissue basophils and eosinophilic granulocytes decreases. When the dose of the drug is 1 mg/kg decreasing amount of these cells is substituted for their compensatory increase on the 2d-3d week. The data obtained demonstrate a decreasing function of the lymph nodes, that depends on the dose of indomethacin.     

The vascular-associated lymphoid tissue: a new site of local immunity

Recent data suggest that atherosclerosis might be a systemic (auto)immune reaction against heat shock protein 60, first occurring at notorious local predilection sites, i.e. the intima at arterial branching points. The local infiltration of mononuclear cells, mainly macrophage-derived foam cells, T cells and smooth-muscle cells in atheromatous plaques, have long been described. During the past few years, research has been concentrated on the early stages in the development of atherosclerosis, and on healthy arteries from young individuals unaffected by arterial disease. In this review, we summarize data characterizing pre-existing mononuclear cell infiltrations in healthy arteries from children and teenagers. These arterial accumulations at regions known to be predilection sites for the later development of atherosclerosis consist mostly of activated T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells, with only a few mast cells and virtually no B or natural killer cells. In analogy to the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, we termed these accumulations 'vascular-associated lymphoid tissue', and assumed a similar function as a local immunosurveillance system, monitoring the bloodstream for potentially harmful endogenous or exogenous antigens. In addition to the remarkable accumulation of mononuclear cells, the vascular-associated lymphoid tissue regions are characterized by a typical distribution of extracellular matrix proteins: collagen type I, collagen type III, fibronectin and tenascin are expressed preferentially in the vascular-associated lymphoid tissue region, whereas collagen type IV, collagen type V, collagen type VI and laminin show a homogenous distribution throughout all regions of the intima. Vascular adhesion molecules type 1, intercellular adhesion molecules type 1 and P-selectin are already present on the healthy endothelial cells of young children. Interactions between adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix components and cellular elements of the vascular-associated lymphoid tissue may provide the basis for the cellular accumulations in the vascular-associated lymphoid tissue regions and the possible development of atherosclerotic lesions later in life.     

The anatomy and topography of the lymphoid formations of the human stomach in postnatal ontogeny]

By means of macro-microscopical methods 80 stomachs from persons of various age have been studied. In the mucous membrane of the human stomach during all age periods of postnatal development the lymphoid tissue is present as diffusely scattered lymphocytes, their microaccumulations and lymphoid noduli. Maximal amount of the lymphoid noduli is observed during the second mature age. The greatest number of the lymphoid noduli per 1 cm2 of the mucous membrane surface is revealed in the area of the lesser curvature and in the pyloric part of the stomach. Most often the lymphoid noduli are situated in the depth of the lumen proper of the mucous membrane, somewhat more seldom--in its more superficial parts, in the muscular lamina and in the submucous tela. The lymphoid noduli with germinative centers are met beginning from the first childhood up to old age. The greatest amount of diffusively scattered lymphocytes is situated near the lymphoid noduli and in the deep layer of the lamina proper of the mucous membrane.     

A brief outline of the evolution of lymphoid tissue and its immunocellular reactivity in vertebrates]

The steps of the phylogenetic development of the lymphoid tissue and its immunolcellular reactivity were studied. It was shown that a gradual change from lymphoid multifunctional cells disposed diffusely in primitive lower vertebrates to the concentration of lymphoid cells into complicatedly arranged lymph nodes was taking place. Common features and species (group) peculiarities of the structure of the lymphoid tissue and its immunological reactivity were studied. The similar succession of immunocellular reactions has the phagocyte reaction as the first link. Then goes the lymphocyte reaction with a following transformation of lymphocytes to blasts and their further differentiation and proliferation into young forms of cells of the plasmocyte row. The antibody-forming cells were found in all the vertebrates studied and their morphology was under research. Species peculiarities of lymphoid cells and their immunoreactivity were studied.     

Quantitative microscopic characteristics of cardial glands in in the human esophagus in postnatal ontogenesis

Microscopical investigation of oesophagus, obtained from corpses of 33 men and 33 women has been carried out (staining with hematoxylin and eosin, van Gieson). The cardial glands have been revealed in 92.4% of cases in the inferior and in 4.6% of cases in the superior third of the oesophageal wall. They have not been revealed in the superior third of the oesophageal wall. They have not been revealed in its medial third. Amount of acini in the section is essentially changeable. In elderly and old persons the ducts of the glands often form ampullar dilatations. The acinar areas on the section remain stable during the greatest++ period of the postnatal ontogenesis and only during old age they decrease slightly. The proper plate of the mucous membrane in the inferior part of the oesophagus in the zone, where the cardial glands are situated, is always thicker than in the area free from the acini. Close interrelations have been revealed between the cardial glands and lymphoid tissue of the oesophageal wall. The intensity of the glandular-lymphoid interrelations is insignificant in newborns and in children of suckling age. It is maximal in persons of mature and elderly age. Remaining at a sufficiently high level, the glandular-lymphoid associations in old persons are manifested in a less degree than in the previous age groups. No difference in organization of the cardial glands has been revealed in the superior and inferior parts of the oesophageal wall, as well as any sex peculiarities.     

Formation of spontaneous and immune rosettes by the cells of the thymus and other formations of the rabbit lymphoid system]

Only T1--RFC (rosette-forming cells) are revealed in the thymus of nonimmunized rabbits. Their number is 2--2.5 times less than in the palatine tonsils, submaxillary lymph nodes and the spleen. T2--RFC are present in these lymphoid formations. There is an increase in the T1--RFC in the thymus after the intravenous immunization of rabbits with sheep erythrocytes. In other lymphoid formations the correlation of the population of cells of the thymus origin altered as a result of increase in the number of T2--RFC. B--RFC accumulated in considerable amounts. Dynamics of T2 and B--RFC accumulation in the lymphoid formations corresponded to the highest antibody titres in the rabbit blood. In the formation of primary immune response the amount of the T1 and T2-RFC in the formations of rabbit lymphoid system depended on the dose of the antigen.     

Anatomy of arteries of the upper extremity in various chromosomal and gene mutations

Changeability of major + arteries and their main branches has been studied in 159 preparations of the upper extremities of fetuses, newborns and children of suckling age with trisomies of 13, 18, and 21 chromosomes, anencephaly in newborns, died at asphyxia or birth injury without any visible developmental defects. Manifestation of anatomical changeability in the human being is under an essential influence of peculiarities of genotypes. In morphogenesis of the upper extremity arteries genes of 13, 18 and 21 chromosomes participate. Trisomies of 13, 18 chromosomes cause more manifested and specific changes in morphogenesis of some structures, and trisomy 21 and mutant genes, producing anencephaly , only increase variability of their structure.     

Distribution of T-cell subsets and immunoglobulin-containing cells in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) of chickens

The present study demonstrated the localization of the T-cell subsets (CD4+ and CD8+) and immunoglobulin (Ig)-containing cells (IgA, IgM, and IgG) in the nasal mucosa and its accessory structures. These lymphoid structures may be compared with nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) of rats and mice. In the chicken NALT, T-cell subsets were more widely distributed than Ig-containing cells, especially in large lymphoid accumulations restricted to the respiratory mucosa in the nasal cavity and the nasolacrimal duct. These lymphoid accumulations in the mucosa of the nasal cavity and nasolacrimal duct consisted of widely distributed CD8+ cells and deeply aggregated CD4+ cells adjacent to large germinal centers. In these lymphoid accumulations, IgG-containing cells were more frequently observed than IgM- and IgA-containing cells. T-cell subsets, predominantly CD8+ cells were more widely distributed in the duct epithelium of the lateral nasal glands than Ig-containing cells. Moreover, numerous CD8+ cells and a few Ig-containing cells were found in the chicken salivary glands, especially around the orifice of their ducts into the oral cavity. Therefore, it seems likely that the chicken NALT plays an important part in the upper respiratory tract, with a close relationship to the paraocular immune system.     

Development of the ductule system of the epididymis in the prenatal period of human ontogeny

In 285 human embryos, prefetuses, fetuses and newborns by means of a complex of morphological methods, development of the epididymal canalicular system has been studied. The anlage of the epididymal canalicular system is stated to appear in embryos 13.0-17.0 mm long (the 6th week of development) and is presented as an accumulation of epithelial cells and primary germ cells between reducing glomeruli and mesonephric canaliculi. The canalization process of the cellular accumulations and their transformation into real canaliculi takes place during the first half of the prefetal period (the 8th week of development). Further growth and development of the epididymal canaliculi takes place in the craniocaudal direction and by the end of the prefetal period (the 12th week) the canaliculi of the head are already formed, they have a twisted course; within the limits of the body and tail they are yet poorly differentiated and their course is nearly straight. During the fetal period of ontogenesis, further differentiation of the epididymal parts occurs and structure of their canaliculi becomes more complex. They acquire a twisted course in all the parts of the organ; by the end of the fetal period the form and structure of the epididymal canaliculi resemble those of the definitive organ.     

Preliminary study of mother–offspring conflict in black and gold howler monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta caraya</Emphasis>)

Parent–offspring conflict has been scarcely studied in Neotropical primates. In this study, we explored mother–offspring conflict in a group of wild black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in northeastern Argentina. We used the all-occurrences technique to record behaviors, completing 712 h of observation. The results showed that all immature individuals between 2 and 23 months expressed conflict with regard to suckling or traveling with their mothers. Successful suckling attempts negatively correlated with the age of the immatures, occurring least frequently with the presence of newborns. In the juvenile period, the decline in successful attempts was a consequence of juveniles reducing suckling attempts and mother rejection.