Crossregulation and functional redundancy between the splicing regulator PTB and its paralogs nPTB and ROD1

Among the targets of the repressive splicing regulator, polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) is its own pre-mRNA, where PTB-induced exon 11 skipping produces an RNA substrate for nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). To identify additional PTB-regulated alternative splicing events, we used quantitative proteomic analysis of HeLa cells after knockdown of PTB. Apart from loss of PTB, the only change was upregulation of the neuronally restricted nPTB, resulting from decreased skipping of nPTB exon 10, a splicing event that leads to NMD of nPTB mRNA. Compared with knockdown of PTB alone, simultaneous knockdown of PTB and nPTB led to larger changes in alternative splicing of known and newly identified PTB-regulated splicing events. Strikingly, the hematopoietic PTB paralog ROD1 also switched from a nonproductive splicing pathway upon PTB/nPTB knockdown. Our data indicate crossregulation between PTB and its paralogs via nonproductive alternative splicing and a large degree of functional overlap between PTB and nPTB.     

The MicroRNA miR-124 promotes neuronal differentiation by triggering brain-specific alternative pre-mRNA splicing

Both microRNAs and alternative pre-mRNA splicing have been implicated in the development of the nervous system (NS), but functional interactions between these two pathways are poorly understood. We demonstrate that the neuron-specific microRNA miR-124 directly targets PTBP1 (PTB/hnRNP I) mRNA, which encodes a global repressor of alternative pre-mRNA splicing in nonneuronal cells. Among the targets of PTBP1 is a critical cassette exon in the pre-mRNA of PTBP2 (nPTB/brPTB/PTBLP), an NS-enriched PTBP1 homolog. When this exon is skipped, PTBP2 mRNA is subject to nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). During neuronal differentiation, miR-124 reduces PTBP1 levels, leading to the accumulation of correctly spliced PTBP2 mRNA and a dramatic increase in PTBP2 protein. These events culminate in the transition from non-NS to NS-specific alternative splicing patterns. We also present evidence that miR-124 plays a key role in the differentiation of progenitor cells to mature neurons. Thus, miR-124 promotes NS development, at least in part by regulating an intricate network of NS-specific alternative splicing.     

Regulation of alternative 3' splice site selection by constitutive splicing factors.

We have devised an in vitro splicing assay in which the mutually exclusive exons 2 and 3 of alpha-tropomyosin act as competing 3' splice sites for joining to exon 1. Splicing in normal HeLa cell nuclear extracts results in almost exclusive joining of exons 1 and 3. Splicing in decreased nuclear extract concentrations and decreased ionic strength results in increased 1-2 splicing. We have used this assay to determine the role of three constitutive pre-mRNA splicing factors on alternative 3' splice site selection. Polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) was found to inhibit the splicing of introns containing a strong binding site for this factor. However, the inhibitory effect of PTB could be partially reversed if pre-mRNAs were preincubated with U2 auxiliary factor (U2AF) prior to splicing in PTB-supplemented extracts. For alpha-tropomyosin, regulation of splicing by PTB and U2AF primarily affected the joining of exons 1-3 with no dramatic increases in 1-2 splicing being detected. Preincubation of pre-mRNAs with SR proteins led to small increases in 1-2 splicing. However, if pre-mRNAs were preincubated with SR proteins followed by splicing in PTB-supplemented extracts, there was a nearly complete reversal of the normal 1-2 to 1-3 splicing ratios. Thus, multiple pairwise, and sometimes antagonizing, interactions between constitutive pre-mRNA splicing factors and the pre-mRNA can regulate 3' splice site selection.     

Polypyrimidine track-binding protein binding downstream of caspase-2 alternative exon 9 represses its inclusion

We have been using the caspase-2 pre-mRNA as a model system to study the importance of alternative splicing in the regulation of programmed cell death. Inclusion or skipping of a cassette-type exon in the 3' portion of this pre-mRNA leads to the production of isoforms with antagonistic activity in apoptosis. We previously identified a negative regulatory element (In100) located in the intron downstream of alternative exon 9. The upstream portion of this element harbors a decoy 3' acceptor site that engages in nonproductive commitment complex interactions with the 5' splice site of exon 9. This in turn confers a competitive advantage to the exon-skipping splicing pattern. Further characterization of the In100 element reveals a second, functionally distinct, domain located downstream from the decoy 3' acceptor site. This downstream domain harbors several polypyrimidine track-binding protein (PTB)-binding sites. We show that PTB binding to these sites correlates with the negative effect on exon 9 inclusion. Finally, we show that both domains of the In100 element can function independently to repress exon 9 inclusion, although PTB binding in the vicinity of the decoy 3' splice site can modulate its activity. Our results thus reveal a complex composite element that regulates caspase-2 exon 9 alternative splicing through a novel mechanism.     

Repression of alpha-actinin SM exon splicing by assisted binding of PTB to the polypyrimidine tract

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) acts as a regulatory repressor of a large number of alternatively spliced exons, often requiring multiple binding sites in order to repress splicing. In one case, cooperative binding of PTB has been shown to accompany repression. The SM exon of the alpha-actinin pre-mRNA is also repressed by PTB, leading to inclusion of the alternative upstream NM exon. The SM exon has a distant branch point located 386 nt upstream of the exon with an adjacent 26 nucleotide pyrimidine tract. Here we have analyzed PTB binding to the NM and SM exon region of the alpha-actinin pre-mRNA. We find that three regions of the intron bind PTB, including the 3' end of the polypyrimidine tract (PPT) and two additional regions between the PPT and the SM exon. The downstream PTB binding sites are essential for full repression and promote binding of PTB to the PPT with a consequent reduction in U2AF(65) binding. Our results are consistent with a repressive mechanism in which cooperative binding of PTB to the PPT competes with binding of U2AF(65), thereby specifically blocking splicing of the SM exon.     

A splicing repressor domain in polypyrimidine tract-binding protein

Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) is an hnRNP with four RRM type domains. It plays roles as a repressive alternative splicing regulator of multilple target genes, as well as being involved in pre-mRNA 3' end processing, mRNA localization, stability, and internal ribosome entry site-mediated translation. Here we have used a tethered function assay, in which a fusion protein of PTB and the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein is recruited to a splicing regulatory site by binding to an artificially inserted MS2 binding site. Deletion mutations of PTB in this system allowed us to identify RRM2 and the following inter-RRM linker region as the minimal region of PTB that can act as splicing repressor domain when recruited to RNA. Splicing repression by the minimal repressor domain remained cell type-specific and dependent upon other defined regulatory elements in the alpha-tropomyosin test minigene. Our results highlight the fact that splicing repression by PTB can be uncoupled from the mode by which it binds to RNA.     

The polypyrimidine tract binding protein binds upstream of neural cell-specific c-src exon N1 to repress the splicing of the intron downstream.

The neural cell-specific N1 exon of the c-src pre-mRNA is both negatively regulated in nonneural cells and positively regulated in neurons. We previously identified conserved intronic elements flanking N1 that direct the repression of N1 splicing in a nonneural HeLa cell extract. The upstream repressor elements are located within the polypyrimidine tract of the N1 exon 3' splice site. A short RNA containing this 3' splice site sequence can sequester trans-acting factors in the HeLa extract to allow splicing of N1. We now show that these upstream repressor elements specifically interact with the polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB). Mutations in the polypyrimidine tract reduce both PTB binding and the ability of the competitor RNA to derepress splicing. Moreover, purified PTB protein restores the repression of N1 splicing in an extract derepressed by a competitor RNA. In this system, the PTB protein is acting across the N1 exon to regulate the splicing of N1 to the downstream exon 4. This mechanism is in contrast to other cases of splicing regulation by PTB, in which the protein represses the splice site to which it binds.     

Co-regulation of alternative splicing by diverse splicing factors in Caenorhabditis elegans

Regulation of alternative splicing is controlled by pre-mRNA sequences (cis-elements) and trans-acting protein factors that bind them. The combinatorial interactions of multiple protein factors with the cis-elements surrounding a given alternative splicing event lead to an integrated splicing decision. The mechanism of multifactorial splicing regulation is poorly understood. Using a splicing-sensitive DNA microarray, we assayed 352 Caenorhabditis elegans alternative cassette exons for changes in embryonic splicing patterns between wild-type and 12 different strains carrying mutations in a splicing factor. We identified many alternative splicing events that are regulated by multiple splicing factors. Many splicing factors have the ability to behave as splicing repressors for some alternative cassette exons and as splicing activators for others. Unexpectedly, we found that the ability of a given alternative splicing factor to behave as an enhancer or repressor of a specific splicing event can change during development. Our observations that splicing factors can change their effects on a substrate during development support a model in which combinatorial effects of multiple factors, both constitutive and developmentally regulated ones, contribute to the overall splicing decision.     

神经胶质瘤中前体mRNA可变剪接研究进展

胶质瘤是最常见的脑肿瘤,前体mRNA可变剪接可能在不同类型胶质瘤的发生、恶化以及侵入中发挥作用.参与调控胶质瘤中前体mRNA可变剪接的因素包括顺式元件如内含子剪接抑制序列(ISS)、外显子剪接抑制序列(ESS)等,反式因子包括SRp55、SC35、SF2/ASF、PTB等剪接调节因子.近期的研究进展发现,有多种与胶质瘤相关的基因受到可变剪接的调控,包括肿瘤抑制因子、肿瘤促进因子、酶、受体、离子通道等.因此,研究胶质瘤中的前体mRNA可变剪接将有利于深入了解胶质瘤发生的分子机制、有利于为胶质瘤的早期诊断和治疗提供新的潜在靶点.     

Characterization of multimeric complexes formed by the human PTB1 protein on RNA

Polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB or hnRNP I) has several known functions in eukaryotic cells, including exon exclusion during alternative splicing events, mRNA stabilization, and regulation of viral translation and replication. PTB contains four RNA Binding Domains (RBDs, or RRMs), all of which can potentially bind RNA, but their roles in the various biological functions of PTB are not clear. We investigate the properties of the complexes formed by human PTB1 on two target RNAs: the rat GABAA receptor gamma2 subunit pre-mRNA and the Hepatitis C Virus 3' NonTranslated RNA. The GABA RNA contains four polypyrimidine tracts in the intron and exon, while the HCV NTR contains a 75-nt U-rich tract and a highly structured 3'-terminus. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays show that PTB1 protein first binds to both RNAs with nanomolar affinities, but subsequent protein addition leads to formation of higher-order complexes. Stoichiometry experiments show that the ultimate complexes contain up to eight PTB1 proteins per RNA strand. Protein constructs containing two tandem RBDs also bind the two RNAs, but with different affinities and stoichiometries. Nuclease protection assays show that PTB1 protects the polypyrimidine tracts in the GABA RNA, as does a construct consisting of RBD3 and RBD4; however, a construct containing RBD1 and RBD2 enhances cleavage of bound RNA. The binding mechanisms of PTB1 are unique to the full-length protein; these modes appear to include direct association with the RNA as well as weaker intermolecular protein associations.     

Next-generation SELEX identifies sequence and structural determinants of splicing factor binding in human pre-mRNA sequence

Many splicing factors interact with both mRNA and pre-mRNA. The identification of these interactions has been greatly improved by the development of in vivo cross-linking immunoprecipitation. However, the output carries a strong sampling bias in favor of RNPs that form on more abundant RNA species like mRNA. We have developed a novel in vitro approach for surveying binding on pre-mRNA, without cross-linking or sampling bias. Briefly, this approach entails specifically designed oligonucleotide pools that tile through a pre-mRNA sequence. The pool is then partitioned into bound and unbound fractions, which are quantified by a two-color microarray. We applied this approach to locating splicing factor binding sites in and around ∼4000 exons. We also quantified the effect of secondary structure on binding. The method is validated by the finding that U1snRNP binds at the 5′ splice site (5′ss) with a specificity that is nearly identical to the splice donor motif. In agreement with prior reports, we also show that U1snRNP appears to have some affinity for intronic G triplets that are proximal to the 5′ss. Both U1snRNP and the polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) avoid exonic binding, and the PTB binding map shows increased enrichment at the polypyrimidine tract. For PTB, we confirm polypyrimidine specificity and are also able to identify structural determinants of PTB binding. We detect multiple binding motifs enriched in the PTB bound fraction of oligonucleotides. These motif combinations augment binding in vitro and are also enriched in the vicinity of exons that have been determined to be in vivo targets of PTB.     

A physical and functional link between splicing factors promotes pre-mRNA 3′ end processing

Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB) is a splicing regulator that also plays a positive role in pre-mRNA 3′ end processing when bound upstream of the polyadenylation signal (pA signal). Here, we address the mechanism of PTB stimulatory function in mRNA 3′ end formation. We identify PTB as the protein factor whose binding to the human β-globin (HBB) 3′ UTR is abrogated by a 3′ end processing-inactivating mutation. We show that PTB promotes both in vitro 3′ end cleavage and polyadenylation and recruits directly the splicing factor hnRNP H to G-rich sequences associated with several pA signals. Increased binding of hnRNP H results in stimulation of polyadenylation through a direct interaction with poly(A) polymerase. Therefore, our results provide evidence of a concerted regulation of pA signal recognition by splicing factors bound to auxiliary polyadenylation sequence elements.     

丙酮酸激酶前mRNA可变剪接的调控在肿瘤代谢中的作用和意义

丙酮酸激酶是糖酵解的关键酶之一,丙酮酸激酶m基因前mRNA(pre-mRNA)通过可变剪接产生M1和M2型两种丙酮酸激酶异构体,2种异构体的选择性表达决定肿瘤细胞的代谢表型,改变肿瘤细胞的增殖和生长。因此,调控丙酮酸激酶可变剪接,对于控制肿瘤细胞的生长代谢十分重要。研究发现,核不均一核糖核蛋白(hnRNP)A1/A2及多聚嘧啶结合蛋白(PTB,又称hnRNPⅠ)具有调控丙酮酸激酶前mRNA可变剪接的作用,并且致癌转录因子c-Myc与hnRNP A1/A2及PTB在肿瘤细胞中的过表达密切相关。我们结合相关研究进展,简要综述丙酮酸激酶可变剪接调控机制。     

The polypyrimidine tract binding protein regulates desaturase alternative splicing and PUFA composition

The Δ6 desaturase, encoded by FADS2, plays a crucial role in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid synthesis. These fatty acids are essential components of the central nervous system, and they act as precursors for eicosanoid signaling molecules and as direct modulators of gene expression. The polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB or hnRNP I) is a splicing factor that regulates alternative pre-mRNA splicing. Here, PTB is shown to bind an exonic splicing silencer element and repress alternative splicing of FADS2 into FADS2 AT1. PTB and FADS2AT1 were inversely correlated in neonatal baboon tissues, implicating PTB as a major regulator of tissue-specific FADS2 splicing. In HepG2 cells, PTB knockdown modulated alternative splicing of FADS2, as well as FADS3, a putative desaturase of unknown function. Omega-3 fatty acids decreased by nearly one half relative to omega-6 fatty acids in PTB knockdown cells compared with controls, with a particularly strong decrease in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentration and its ratio to arachidonic acid (ARA). This is a rare demonstration of a mechanism specifically altering the cellular omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio without any change in diet/media. These findings reveal a novel role for PTB, regulating availability of membrane components and eicosanoid precursors for cell signaling.     

hnRNP I/PTB can antagonize the splicing repressor activity of SRp30c

The control of alternative pre-mRNA splicing often requires the participation of factors displaying synergistic or antagonistic activities. In the hnRNP A1 pre-mRNA, three elements promote the exclusion of alternative exon 7B, while a fourth intron element (CE9) represses splicing of exon 7B to the downstream exon. We have shown previously that the 5' portion of the 38-nucleotide-long CE9 element is bound by SRp30c, and that this interaction is important for repression in vitro. To determine whether SRp30c alone can impose repression, we tested a high-affinity SRp30c binding site that we identified using the SELEX protocol. We find that multiple high-affinity SRp30c sites are required to replicate the level of repression obtained with CE9, and that both the 5' and the 3' portions of CE9 contribute to SRp30c binding. Performing RNA affinity chromatography with the complete CE9 element recovered hnRNP I/PTB. Surprisingly however, His-tagged PTB reduced the binding of SRp30c to CE9 in a nuclear extract, stimulated splicing to a downstream 3' splice site, and relieved the CE9-mediated splicing repression in vitro. Our in vivo results are consistent with the notion that increasing PTB levels alleviates the repression imposed by CE9 to a downstream 3' splice site. Thus, PTB can function as an anti-repressor molecule to counteract the splicing inhibitory activity of SRp30c.     

CELF and PTB proteins modulate the inclusion of the β-tropomyosin exon 6B during myogenic differentiation

Exon 6B from the chicken β-tropomyosin pre-mRNA is alternatively spliced during myogenic differentiation. Exon 6B is excluded in mRNA from myoblasts and included in mRNA from myotubes. We investigated the regulation of exon 6B inclusion ex vivo in a quail myogenic cell line, which behaves as myoblasts in undifferentiated state and as myotubes after differentiation. We show that the β-tropomyosin exon 6B is a novel target of CUG-BP and ETR-3-like factor (CELF). Overexpression of CELF proteins in myoblasts activates splicing of exon 6B. Using a dominant-negative form of CELF4, we demonstrate that CELF proteins are involved in switching splicing from exon 6A towards exon 6B inclusion during myogenic differentiation. We also found that polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) is required for splicing repression of exon 6B in myoblasts. CELF and PTB proteins exhibit antagonistic properties toward inclusion of exon 6B during myogenic differentiation. Our results suggest that a change in the protein level of CUGBP1 and PTB proteins, associated with a distinct pattern of PTB during the transition from myoblasts to myotubes is one of the parameters involved in regulating splicing of exon 6B during myogenesis.