Pollination of the lady's slipper Cypripedium henryi Rolfe (Orchidaceae)

The pollination ecology of Cypripedium henryi Rolfe, a slipper orchid endemic to west China, was investigated, and its floral shape, size, colour, and scent were analysed. Examination of the breeding system suggests that the flowers are self-compatible, but need pollen vectors for successful reproduction. The flower is rewardless; over 15 insects belonging to Araneida, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera were recorded as flower visitors, but most only alighted or rested on the flower. In the total 32 h of observations over 2 years, female Lasioglossum bees were found to be the most frequent visitors and the only pollinators. They showed a high visitation frequency and, surprisingly, re-visited the same flowers frequently. Cypripedium henryi probably attracts pollinators visiting the flowers through general food deception (odour components, colour, false nectar guides), as well as special structures (slippery labellum, slippery staminode). Although three Lasioglossum species visited the flowers, only L. sauterum Fan et Ebmer was found with pollen. Lasioglossum flavohirtum Ebmer was large and climbed out from the entrance. Morphologically, L. sichuanense Fan et Ebmer could be considered as a potential pollinator, but the collected specimens were found to have no pollen of C. henryi on their bodies. It was speculated that the particular floral scent of C. henryi discouraged the entrance of L. sichuanense bees. Lasioglossum sauterum was matched morphologically to the flower, but not all of the visitations resulted in effective pollinations, as some flowers of C. henryi were frequently re-visited and the pollen mass had been taken away by bees on previous visitations. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 491–499.     

Dynamics of island populations of Cypripedium calceolus in the Biebrza river valley (north-east Poland)

Three Cypripedium calceolus populations were observed in the Biebrza National Park (north-east Poland) for 11 years (1989–99). The populations differed in the number of genets and ramets and in their dynamics. Differences were in the proportion of flowering ramets, number of flowers, fruiting and recruitment. Fruiting and recruitment are low in populations of Cypripedium calceolus . Fruiting is probably pollinators limited, and recruitment is limited by environmental conditions. Changes in the size of populations of this species are caused by the following processes: changes in the number of genets (their appearance and death), changes in the size of clones (growth of individuals and their disintegration, death of individual ramets), dormancy of genets, and animal pressure. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 139 , 67–77.     

Any which way will do – the pollination biology of a northern Australian rainforest canopy tree (Syzygium sayeri; Myrtaceae)

The pollination biology of Syzygium sayeri was documented using the special capabilities of the Australian Canopy Crane. Syzygium sayeri is a xenogamous species with poor self-compatibility, moderate levels of natural out-crossing, and the producer of copious amounts nectar throughout the day and night. Of a diverse fauna associated with, and visiting the flowers of S. sayeri , larger vertebrates (blossom bats and honeyeaters) account for approximately half its natural pollination rate, while the balance of pollination is attributable to a host of invertebrate visitors (wasps, flies, thrips, butterflies). Day and night pollinators contributed approximately equally to the successful pollination of S. sayeri ; although the number of individuals visiting flowers was greater during the day, further experimentation might reveal night visitors to be more effective pollinators. The co-occurrence of vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as day and night visitors, suggests that S. sayeri has a generalist pollination system, whereby the absence of a discrete set of faunae could be compensated for by the presence of other pollinators. What is not clear is the contribution of different pollinators to the population success (i.e. gene flow) of this species. Further study is needed to determine the contribution of each pollinator group to the flow of genetic material in populations of S. sayeri . © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 149 , 69–84.     

A new species of Psidium L. (Myrtaceae) from southern Brazil

Rewardless kettle‐trap flowers Cypripedium yunnanense and C. flavum were watched for pollinators during 73 and 101 man‐hours, respectively, in north‐west Yunnan at 3490–3590 m a.s.l. They differ from typical Cypripedium, such as C. calceolus, in having a broad infolded flap of the lip extending all around the entrance of the pouch (instead of being restricted to the vicinity of the staminode) and in the flap not being slippery. Cypripedium yunnanense is pollinated by Lasioglossum zonulum euronotum (Halictidae), and C. flavum is pollinated by Andrena orchidea and Andrena sp. (Andrenidae, two of nine new hymenopterans discovered at the sites). The bees do not inadvertently fall into the trap by slipping (as often occurs in other slipper orchids), but enter it by crawling down the flap in full control of their movements. No natural hybrids between the two orchids are known, although they occur in close‐by or mixed stands, are co‐flowering and size compatible with regard to their pollinators, and produce fruits following manual cross‐pollination in situ. Analyses of the (non‐Cypripedium) pollen carried indicate that: (1) the two andrenids are probably oligolectic; (2) the andrenids and the halictid do not share the same flower species; and (3) the halictid is polylectic. Points (1) and (2) are probable reasons for the lack of hybrids. The other reason why Lasioglossum zonulum euronotum does not visit C. flavum despite being polylectic may be the flower's odour; cases of discrimination of closely related flowers by polylectic Lasioglossum have been reported elsewhere. Blow flies Calliphora vomitoria and Calliphora pattoni (Calliphoridae) also enter the orchids, some smearing themselves with pollen, yet they are not pollinators. They are too large to leave by the exit and die imprisoned. However, they may be accidental pollinators of the rather larger C. tibeticum present at the sites. Such accidental pollinators probably play an important role in the evolution of new pollination syndromes. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 156 , 51–64.     

Terrestrial locomotion in sea snakes: the effects of sex and species on cliff-climbing ability in sea kraits (Serpentes, Elapidae, Laticauda)

Ecomorphological theory predicts a match between an organism's environment and its locomotor abilities, such that animals function most effectively under the conditions they experience in nature. However, amphibious species must simultaneously optimize performance in two different habitats posing incompatible demands on locomotor morphology and physiology. This situation may generate a mismatch between environment and locomotor function, with performance optimized only for the more important habitat type; alternatively, selection may fine-tune locomotor abilities for both types of challenges. Two species of sea kraits in New Caledonia offer an opportunity to examine this question: Laticauda laticaudata is more highly aquatic than L. colubrina , and males are more terrestrial than females within each taxon. We examined an aspect of locomotor performance that is critical to coming ashore on steep-walled rocky islets: the ability to climb steep cliffs. We also measured the muscular strength of these animals, a character that is likely critical to climbing performance. Laticauda colubrina was heavier-bodied and stronger (even relative to its body mass) than the more aquatic L. laticaudata ; and within each species, males were heavier-bodied and stronger than females. The same patterns were evident in cliff-climbing ability. Thus, the ability of different species and sexes of sea kraits to climb steep cliffs correlates with their body shape even though these primarily aquatic animals use terrestrial habitats only rarely.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 85 , 433–441.     

Reproductive biology of the invasive exotic shrub, Rhododendron ponticum L. (Ericaceae)

The reproductive biology of an exotic species will affect its ability to become naturalized and invasive in non-native habitats. Rhododendron ponticum is an ecologically damaging exotic weed in the British Isles, which spreads predominantly by seed. I investigated how inbreeding and outcrossing affect seed production and germination in a wild population of this species in Ireland. Experimental manipulations revealed low fruit and seed set when insects were excluded from flowers, suggesting that this species has limited capability for spontaneous autogamy. Hand-pollination treatments showed that, although flowers are self-compatible (with self and same plant pollen), higher levels of seed set occur following outcrossing (xenogamy). There was no significant difference in rate of germination of seeds from inbred or outcrossed treatments. The addition of xenogamous pollen to open flowers did not increase fruit or seed set, suggesting that flowers in this population are not pollen limited: native generalist pollinators, mainly bumblebees ( Bombus spp.), are providing an adequate pollinator service. This work demonstrates that outcrossing increases seed set and pollinators are required to facilitate this. Hence, generalist native pollinators can promote invasion by exotic plants. Native pollinators can clearly play an important part in alien species invasion.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 155 , 373–381.     

A new species of Viola L. (Violaceae) from Sichuan, China

Viola muliensis Y.S. Chen & Q.E. Yang, a new species of Viola L. (Violaceae) from Sichuan, China, is described and illustrated. Viola muliensis is endemic to Muli County, south-western Sichuan. This new species has yellow flowers with very short spurs and belongs to subsection Brevicalcaratae W. Beck., section Dischidium Ging. It is distinguished from other related species by having pedatipartite leaves.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 149 , 365–368.     

Pollination by fungus gnats in four species of the genus Mitella (Saxifragaceae)

The first example of pollination by fungus gnats in the eudicots is reported. The genus Mitella (Saxifragales) is characteristically produces minute, inconspicuous, mostly dull-coloured flowers with linear, sometimes pinnately branched, petals. To understand the function of these characteristic flowers, we studied the pollination biology of four Mitella species with different floral traits and different sexual expression: dioecious M. acerina , gynodioecious M. furusei var. subramosa , and hermaphroditic M. stylosa var. makinoi and M. integripetala. Flower-bagging experiments showed that wind pollination did not occur in the dioecious and gynodioecious species. Two years of observations of flower visitors at six study sites in Japan revealed that the principal pollinators of all four Mitella were specific species of fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae), which landed on the flowers with their long spiny legs settling on the petals. Characteristically, numerous pollen grains were attached to the fungus gnats in specific locations on the body. Although, on average, 1.3–2.6 fungus gnats visited each inflorescence per day, the fruit set of both bisexual and female flowers exceeded 63%. These results suggest that fungus gnats are highly efficient pollinators of Mitella spp., and that Mitella flowers are morphologically adapted to pollination by fungus gnats.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 144 , 449–460.     

Relationship between floral tube length and nectar robbing in Duranta erecta L. (Verbenaceae)

Although nectar robbing is a common phenomenon in plant species with tubular flowers or flowers with nectar spurs, the potential effect of this illegitimate interaction on plant reproductive success has not received the deserved attention. In the present study, we analysed the functional relationship between flower morphology and nectar robbing, and examined the reproductive consequences of the interaction in a population of Duranta erecta (Verbenaceae) on the island of Cuba. The results show that nectar robbing is conducted by the carpenter bees Xylocopa cubaecola and affects up to 44% of flowers in the studied population. However, not all the flowers have the same probability of being robbed. The chance of flowers being robbed increases with flower length and flower diameter. Moreover, nectar robbing significantly decreases the chance that flowers will set fruit. Also, the impact of nectar robbing on the probability of flowers to set fruits is dependent on the plant. We suggest that nectar robbing may represent an opposite selective force that balances the selection for longer corollas often imposed by pollinators specializing in visiting tubular flowers. Such a relationship with nectar robbers would have obvious implications for the evolution of tubular or closed flowers. This preliminary finding deserves further research in light of the ecological and evolutionary consequences of nectar robbing in tubular flowers.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 96 , 392–398.     

Reproductive ecology of the endemic Lecocarpus pinnatifidus (Asteraceae) in an isolated population in the Galápagos Islands

Lecocarpus pinnatifidus is an endemic member of the Asteraceae occurring on only one island in the Galápagos archipelago. The capitula are large with female ray florets and male disc florets. They are self-compatible but this study suggests fruit set is pollen limited. Visits from Xylocopa darwini and other larger insect pollinators are rare, and small insects seem to be the main pollinators. Small insects carry few pollen grains and most likely mediate self-pollinations. Self-compatibility and seed set after selfing are the most common reproductive strategy in the Galápagos Islands and L. pinnatifidus seemingly fits well into this group.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 146 , 171–180.     

Diversity, flower visitation frequency and generalism of pollinators in temperate rain forests of Chiloé Island, Chile

Species richness and taxonomic composition of pollinator assemblages are documented for 26 plant species from temperate rain forests of northern Chiloé Island, southern Chile (42°30'S). We investigated the patterns of generalism and specialization among plants and animal pollinators by comparing the flower visit frequency by different pollen vectors during the spring and summer months of three consecutive years (2000–2002). Species studied exhibited a range of floral morphologies (radial vs. zygomorphic, open vs. tubular) and rewards (nectar and/or pollen). Overall, we recorded 172 pollinator species, with an average of 6.6 species of pollen vectors/plant species. Pollinators visited an average of 15.2 plant species/pollen vector. Pollinator assemblages were dominated by Coleoptera (75 species), Diptera (56 species) and Hymenoptera (30 species), but passerine birds and hummingbirds were also important. The most specialized plants were vines, including the bee-pollinated genus Luzuriaga (Philesiaceae) and two endemic species of hummingbird-pollinated Gesneriaceae. Hymenoptera contributed 41.2% of all visits, with the bumblebee Bombus dalhbomii accounting for 22.5% of these. Plants with unspecialized flower morphology supported a higher species richness of pollinators, but visiting rates did not differ from specialized flowers.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 399–416.     

Pollination biology of the Galápagos endemic, Tournefortia rufo-sericea (Boraginaceae)

Tournefortia rufo-sericea is an endemic member of the Galápagos angiosperm flora. Although not uncommon within the archipelago, its status is presently listed as vulnerable and, as such, a complete knowledge of its pollination biology may prove useful in preventing its decline. Pollination experiments, flower-visitor observations, nectar and fluorescence studies, as well as pollen : ovule ratio and pollen size studies were included in this investigation. The small, white flowers of this species set fruit via open pollination (81%), autonomous self-pollination (80%), diurnal pollination (80%), and nocturnal pollination (85%). Ants are the most common visitor to the flowers of this species, primarily during the day, whereas beetles and moths make visits at night. A small amount of nectar is presumably produced, as moths are often seen probing the corollas. Experiments with fluorescent dust did not support interflower pollen movement. The pollen : ovule ratio was 4972 : 1, which suggests xenogamy, and the mean pollen size was 21 µm. Despite the pollen : ovule ratio, it appears that this species exhibits a breeding strategy of facultative autogamy, in which the majority of flowers set fruit via autonomous self-pollination, but limited outcrossing may occur when pollinators are available. Conservation efforts for T. rufo-sericea should focus on the control or eradication of exotic species.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 153 , 21–31.     

A new Swartzia (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae: Swartzieae) species with trimorphic stamens from Amazonian Brazil

A new species Swartzia trimorphica Mansano & A. L. Souza (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Swartzieae) from the Amazonian Brazil, is described and illustrated. The new species is notable and distinct from all the other species of Swartzia by its highly unusual trimorphic stamens, while the other species have either an isomorphic or a dimorphic androecium. The new species is included in the section and subsection Swartzia , ser. Orthostylae based on its bracteolate pedicels, the cauligerous inflorescences, lateral style and the relative size of the ovary compared to the style. The atypically small gynoecium in the material suggests the possibility that flowers may be functionally unisexual. Field observations and more collections are needed to resolve this question.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 235–238.     

Comparative biology of pollination systems in the African-Malagasy genus Brownleea (Brownleeinae: Orchidaceae)

The role of pollinators in the evolution of the African-Malagasy orchid genus Brownleea (Brownleeinae) was investigated. Taxa show specialization for pollination by bees ( B. parviflora , B. recurvata ), short-proboscid flies ( B. galpinii ), and long-proboscid flies ( B. macroceras , B. coerulea ). All species in the genus produce nectar, but some ( B. coerulea , B. galpinii ) appear to mimic flowers of abundant sympatric species as an additional strategy to attract pollinators. Species investigated in terms of their breeding systems ( B. coerulea , B. parviflora , B. macroceras , B. galpinii ) are reliant on pollinator visits for seed production. Self-pollination results in strong inbreeding depression during embryo formation. A phylogeny of the genus, constructed using data from the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region and morphology, indicates that fly pollination is likely to be basal in the genus, and that there has been a single shift to bee pollination.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 65–78.     

Ecology and systematics of mangrove crabs of the genus Perisesarma (Crustacea: Brachyura: Sesarmidae) from East Africa

East Africa has a reduced mangrove crab species richness when compared to Asian mangroves. To date, only one species of Perisesarma de Man, 1895 has been reported in East Africa, despite more than 30 years of mangrove research in this region. Based on morphology, colour, mtDNA and behaviour, we describe a new species of Perisesarma from Kenya, P. samawati sp. nov. Surprisingly, when comparing molecular data from other species within this genus, P. samawati sp. nov. and the sympatric P. guttatum (A. Milne Edwards, 1869) are not sister species. Some aspects of the ecology of P. guttatum and P. samawati sp. nov. are compared and the differences discussed. Additionally, we compare P. samawati sp. nov. with the ecological literature of a possible sister species P. eumolpe de Man, 1895 from Malaysian mangroves. Our findings suggest that the new species is an ecologically important species in East African mangroves.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 141 , 435–445.     

Trends in floral scent chemistry in pollination syndromes: floral scent composition in hummingbird-pollinated taxa

We studied an assemblage of 17 species of bird-pollinated Ecuadorian plants (from 14 angiosperm families), including taxa pollinated by short-billed (trochiline) and sickle-billed (hermit) hummingbirds. Hummingbirds are widely supposed to ignore fragrance while visiting flowers. We collected floral headspace odours in order to test the general prediction that specialist hummingbird-pollinated flowers are scentless. In nine out of 17 of these species we failed to detect any odours using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), whereas the remaining eight species produced trace levels of volatile compounds. Most of these odour compounds were of terpenoid or lipoxygenase derivation and are commonly emitted by vegetative as well as floral plant tissues. Further studies will be required to determine whether these weak odours attract alternative pollinators, repel enemies or represent vestiges of a scented ancestry.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 146 , 191–199.     

Why be a rewarding trap? The evolution of floral rewards in Arum (Araceae), a genus characterized by saprophilous pollination systems

Plant species of the genus Arum typically have lure-and-trap pollination systems that are saprophilous (i.e. attracting flies or beetles searching for breeding sites in decaying organic matter). They have been assumed to always attract and trap their pollinators by deception because the inflorescences provide unsuitable breeding grounds for pollinators. The present study explored the possibility that one species, Arum creticum Boiss. & Heldr., which has yellow, sweet-smelling inflorescences, rewards its pollinators and that this increases its success in attracting pollinators over its close relative, Arum idaeum Coust. & Gadoger. The relationship between rewards provided, floral structure, insect attraction, and pollen import and export was examined in two naturally occurring sympatric populations of A. creticum , A. idaeum , and their natural hybrids. The results showed that plants providing more pollen were visited by larger numbers of females of a mining bee Lasioglossum marginatum Brullé as well as adults and nymphs of a hemipteran bug Dionconotus cruentatus creticus Heiss. In A. creticum , L. marginatum was found to be a better outcrossing vector than D. cruentatus in areas where both pollinators occurred because L. marginatum individuals carried more pollen on their bodies and travelled greater distances between inflorescences, thus increasing the potential for outcrossing. The finding that floral rewards may result in increased fitness, compared to nonrewarding systems that rely on attracting saprophilic pollinators, suggests that it is possible for rewarding species to evolve from saprophilous systems.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 88 , 257–268.     

Reproductive biology of Boswellia serrata, the source of salai guggul, an important gum-resin

Detailed studies were carried out on the phenology, floral biology, pollination ecology and breeding system of Boswellia serrata Roxb. (Burseraceae) the source of 'salai guggul'. The trees remain leafless during the entire period of flowering and fruiting. The inflorescence is a terminal raceme and produces up to 90 bisexual, actinomorphic flowers. On average a flower produces 10 044 ± 1259 starch-filled pollen grains. About 85% of the fresh pollen grains are viable; the pollen to ovule ratio is 3348 : 1. The stigma is of the wet papillate type. The style is hollow with three flattened stylar canals filled with a secretion product. The stylar canals are bordered by a layer of glandular canal cells. The inner tangential wall of the canal cells shows cellulose thickenings. The ovary is trilocular and bears three ovules, one in each locule. Flowers offer nectar and pollen as rewards to floral visitors. The giant Asian honey bee ( Apis dorsata ) and A. cerana var. indica (Indian honey bee) are the effective pollinators. The species is self-incompatible and the selfed pollen tubes are inhibited soon after their entry into the stigma. Self-pollen tubes develop a characteristic 'isthmus' as a result of enlargement of the tube soon after emergence through the narrow germ pore. Cross-pollinated flowers allowed normal pollen germination and pollen tube growth, and resulted in fruit- and seed-set. Under open pollination fruit-set was only about 10%. Although manual cross-pollinations increased fruit set, it was only up to about 20%. Low fruit set appears to be the result of inadequate cross-pollination and other constraints, presumably limitation of available nutrients.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 73–82.     

Different rewards in female and male flowers can explain the evolution of sexual dimorphism in plants

Insects use floral signals to find rewards in flowers, transferring pollen in the process. In unisexual plants, the general view is that staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers obtain conspecific pollen transfers by advertising their rewards with similar floral signals. For female plants lacking food rewards, this can lead to floral mimicry and pollination by deceit. In this study, we challenge this view by presenting evidence for different rewards offered by flowers on females and males, as a mechanism promoting sexual dimorphism in Leucadendron xanthoconus (Proteaceae), a clearly sexually dimorphic shrub. The tiny beetle pollinators Pria cinerascens (Nitidulidae) depend entirely on the plants they pollinate for survival and reproduction. Male flowers provide mating and egglaying sites, and food for adults and larvae. Female flowers lack nectar and function to shelter pollinators from rain. Their flower heads have cup‐shaped display leaves, and are more closed than are those in males. On rainy days, flowers on females received 30% more visits than did flowers on males, and 90% more than they did on sunny days. When we removed display leaves in females, intact flower heads received 14 times more P. cinerascens visits than did manipulated flower heads, indicating that the cup shape attracts the beetles. In both sexes, having many flowers increased the probability of visits and the number of P. cinerascens visiting a plant. In males, the number of larvae was positively correlated with floral‐display size, while in females, seed set (pollen transfers) showed no relationship with floral‐display size. Ninety‐five per cent of the ovules received pollen and 52% matured into seeds. We explain the sexual dimorphism in L. xanthoconus as a result of an intimate partnership with P. cinerascens pollinators, in conjunction with a rainy climate. Pollinators favour large male floral displays, because they offer a reliable food source for adults and larvae. Frequent rains drive the P. cinerascens to leave males in search of the protection offered by females. Because females offer shelter, an essential resource that is not offered by male plants, they receive sufficient pollen independent of their floral‐display size. This pollination system promotes the evolution of sexually dimorphic floral signals, guiding pollinators to different rewards in male and female flowers. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 85 , 97–109.     

Ecophysiological significance of leaf traits in Cypripedium and Paphiopedilum

There is a close phylogenetic relationship between Paphiopedilum and Cypripedium, but these two genera diverge considerably in terms of their leaf traits. To understand the evolution and the ecophysiological significance of leaf traits, we investigated the leaf traits of three Paphiopedilum species and three Cypripedium species in southwestern China. Cypripedium tibeticum and C. flavum showed a significantly higher light-saturated photosynthetic rate (P(max) ), stomatal conductance (g(s) ), photosynthetic nitrogen utilization efficiency (PNUE) and specific leaf area (SLA), but lower ratio of leaf carbon to nitrogen content (C/N) and leaf construction cost (CC) than Paphiopedilum. These leaf traits of Cypripedium suggest its high resource use efficiency and high growth rate reflecting adaptation to a short growing period and abundant soil nutrients and water in alpine habitats. Conversely, the low P(max) , g(s) , PNUE, SLA and the ratio of chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b (Chl a/b), but high leaf nitrogen investment in light-harvesting component (P(L) ), CC and C/N in Paphiopedilum indicate its adaptation to a low light, nutrient-poor and limited soil water habitats in karst areas. As a sympatric species of Paphiopedilum, although C. lentiginosum retained the phylogenetic leaf traits of Cypripedium, such as high mass-based light-saturated photosynthetic rate (P(max-M) ), g(s) and PNUE, it had some similar leaf traits to those of Paphiopedilum, such as low mesophyll conductance (g(m) ) and Chl a/b, and high P(L) , which reflected an adaptation to the same habitat. Our results show that the evolution of the leaf traits of Paphiopedilum and Cypripedium are shaped by both phylogeny and environment.