哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术的研究进展

尽管与已有十几年发展史的哺乳动物胚胎细胞克隆技术相比,其体细胞克隆技术的研究仅有不到三年的时间;然而,鉴于哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术在供核效率等方面所具备的明显优势,其应用价值远高于胚胎细胞克隆技术。随着对哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术基本机理的进一步广泛深入的研究,它将在大量克隆优良种畜、扩大同基因型实验动物种群、培育转基因动物和保护濒危野生动物遗传资源等方面发挥巨大作用。     

裉黑激素及其受体的研究进展

褪黑激素（ＭＥＬ）具有许多重要的生理作用,近年,有关的研究日益广泛和深入,本文不ＭＥＬ受体ｃＤＮＡ的克隆、结构、分型、分布以及ＭＥＬ的药理特性、作用机制和在视觉中的作用等方面的研究探问作一简要综述．     

哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术的研究进展

尽管与已有十几年发展史的哺乳动物胚胎细胞克隆技术相比,其体细胞克隆技术的研究仅有不到三年的时间;然而,鉴于哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术在供核效率等方面所具备的明显优势,其应用价值远高于胚胎细胞克隆技术。随着对哺乳动物体细胞克隆技术基本机理的进一步广泛深入的研究,它将在大量克隆优良种畜、扩大同基因型实验动物种群、培育转基因动物和保护濒危野生动物遗传资源等方面发挥巨大作用。     

克隆植物对异质生境的适应对策研究进展

生境异质性是自然生态系统的基本特征,植物生长的必需资源和环境胁迫因子均存在着复杂的时间和空间异质性。克隆植物是指在自然条件下具有克隆特性的植物,即可通过与母株相连的芽、根茎、分蘖或枝条等繁殖体产生无性繁殖的植物,这些繁殖体一旦定居便可成为潜在的独立个体。克隆植物具有独特的生境适应策略(如形态可塑性、克隆整合、克隆分工、觅食行为、风险分摊等),面对异质性的生境条件,它可以通过调整自身的生理和形态结构来适应异质生境。目前,对于克隆植物在异质生境适应行为的研究已有很多报道,然而系统性的归纳和总结尚有欠缺。综述了克隆植物在不同资源异质生境(光照、养分、水分)和不同胁迫生境(盐碱胁迫、风沙胁迫、重金属胁迫)下独特的适应对策。最后,针对克隆植物对异质生境的适应对策,进行了总结并对未来的重点研究方向提出建议：(1)时间异质性尺度上的考量;(2)异质性生境中生物因子的调控作用;(3)克隆植物入侵机制;(4)克隆植物在生态修复中的应用潜力。     

Rb相关蛋白RAP140a全长cDNA的克隆和定位

Rb可以同细胞内的许多蛋白质因子形成复合物,从而参与细胞周期调控、基因表达、细胞分化、细胞凋亡、机体发育和肿瘤发生等多种生命活动.利用酵母双杂交系统,以人Rb蛋白片段为诱饵筛选人胎脑cDNA文库,得到6个新的cDNA片段.其中一个cDNA片段的Northern杂交显示有两个分别约为7和9 kb大小的剪切本,在不同组织中均匀分布.经过3次PCR扩增,得到了7.2 kb的一种全长cDNA,命名为RAP140a,它编码一个1233个氨基酸的亲水性蛋白.该基因定位在染色体3p13-p14.1.RAP140a的功能可能和Rb或其他蛋白的细胞内转运有关.     

动物克隆中的胎盘异常

核移植后,克隆胎儿的发育需要通过胎盘与母体进行物质交换。供体核重编程的错误常导致克隆胎盘异常,如胎盘过大、滋养层异常和血管缺陷等,这些现象通常与蛋白质表达的异常有关。克隆胎盘的缺陷会影响克隆胎儿的发育,降低胎儿的出生率,这可能是造成动物克隆效率低下的一个重要原因。     

克隆植物对种间竞争的适应策略

克隆植物种群因其寿命的持久性、空间上的可移动性和繁殖方式的多样化等特征与非克隆植物有很大区别, 在自然生态系统中占有重要地位, 甚至成为优势种或者建群种。该文通过归纳有关克隆植物的种间竞争适应策略研究案例, 阐述了克隆植物的竞争能力差异和影响竞争力的因素; 论述了克隆植物在构件形态、克隆构型、繁殖对策等方面对种间竞争的响应, 以及生理整合作用与种间竞争的关系; 分析了导致某些同类研究的结论不一致的原因, 认为实验对象差异、实验设计、生境条件与克隆植物形态及生理上的时空动态变化等都可能影响实验结果; 提出了全球变化背景下的克隆植物种间竞争及其分子生态学机制等可能是今后需要重点关注的问题。     

无限制克隆技术研究进展及其应用

无限制克隆(restriction-free cloning,RFC)是近年来建立起来的一种简单通用的DNA克隆技术,它可以精确地将目的片段插入到质粒内任意位置,是一种不受酶切位点、连接酶效率、目的基因长度或载体序列等条件限制的新型DNA重组技术.与其他多种克隆方法相比,RFC技术拥有不可替代的优势.本文在总结国内外RFC技术研究的基础上,系统阐述了RFC技术的原理、特点和在克隆方面的研究进展,并探讨其在分子生物学和合成生物学等领域的应用价值.     

褪黑激素及其受体的研究进展

褪黑激素（MEL）具有许多重要的生理作用,近年,有关的研究日益广泛和深入,本文就MEL受体cDNA的克隆、结构、分型、分布以及MEL的药理特性、作用机制和在视觉中的作用等方面的研究近况作一简要综述。     

蛇莓克隆构型对光照强度的可塑性反应

克隆植物构型的可塑性反应可能是它在资源斑块性状分布的环境中获取资源对策的重要方面,因而可能具有重要的生态学意义。在一田间实验中,匍匐茎草本蛇毒（Duchesnea indica Focke）经历了不同相对光照强度的处理,以研究光照强度对蛇莓克隆构型的影响。结果表明：随着相对光照强度的增加,间隔子的长度逐渐降低,分枝角度、分枝强度和分株密度呈二次曲线变化。结合植物对环境异质性的利用对策,对的揭示的蛇莓克隆构型可塑性进行了讨论。     

Spatially and temporally controlled gene transfer by electroporation into adherent cells on plasmid DNA-loaded electrodes

Functional characterization of human genes is one of the most challenging tasks in current genomics. Owing to a large number of newly discovered genes, high-throughput methodologies are greatly needed to express in parallel each gene in living cells. To develop a method that allows efficient transfection of plasmids into adherent cells in spatial- and temporal-specific manners, we studied electric pulse-triggered gene transfer using a plasmid-loaded electrode. A plasmid was loaded on a gold electrode surface having an adsorbed layer of poly(ethyleneimine), and cells were then plated directly onto this modified surface. The plasmid was detached from the electrode by applying a short electric pulse and introduced into the cells cultured on the electrode, resulting in efficient gene expression, even in primary cultured cells. The location of transfected cells could be restricted within a small area on a micropatterned electrode, showing the versatility of the method for spatially controlled transfection. Plasmid transfection could also be performed in a temporally controlled manner without a marked loss of the efficiency when an electric pulse was applied within 3 days after cell plating. The method described here will provide an efficient means to transfer multiple genes, in parallel, into cultured mammalian cells for high-throughput reverse genetics research.     

Rapid optimization of electroporation conditions for plant cells,protoplasts, and pollen

The optimization of electroporation conditions for maximal uptake of DNA during direct gene transfer experiments is critical to achieve high levels of gene expression in transformed plant cells. Two stains, trypan blue and fluorescein diacetate, have been applied to optimize electroporation conditions for three plant cell types, using different square wave and exponential wave electroporation devices. The different cell types included protoplasts from tobacco, a stable mixotrophic suspension cell culture from soybean with intact cell walls, and germinating pollen from alfalfa and tobacco. Successful electroporation of each of these cell types was obtained, even in the presence of an intact cell wall when conditions were optimized for the electroporation pulse. The optimal field strength for each of these cells differs, protoplasts having the lowest optimal pulse field strength, followed by suspension cells and finally germinating pollen requiring the strongest electroporation pulse. A rapid procedure is described for optimizing electroporation parameters using different types of cells from different plant sources.     

Optimum conditions for electric pulse-mediated gene transfer to mammalian cells in suspension

A pulse-generating machine which delivers exponentially decaying pulses over broad range of pulse lengths was used to determine the optimum pulse conditions for gene transfer to FM3A cells. In the transformation of tk- cells with pTK1, a single pulse of 100-2000 microseconds gave a high transformation frequency at 1.5-6 kV/cm and room temperature, the highest transformation frequency obtained being 3 X 10(-3). As the suspension buffer for cells exposed to the pulse, Saline G was better than PBS(-) for obtaining a large number of transformants because it ensured high cell viability.     

Effect of electric field vectoriality on electrically mediated gene delivery in mammalian cells

Electropermeabilization is a nonviral method used to transfer genes into living cells. Up to now, the mechanism is still to be elucidated. Since cell permeabilization, a prerequired for gene transfection, is triggerred by electric field, its characteristics should depend on its vectorial properties. The present investigation addresses the effect of pulse polarity and orientation on membrane permeabilization and gene delivery by electric pulses applied to cultured mammalian cells. This has been directly observed at the single-cell level by using digitized fluorescence microscopy. While cell permeabilization is only slightly affected by reversing the polarity of the electric pulses or by changing the orientation of pulses, transfection level increases are observed. These last effects are due to an increase in the cell membrane area where DNA interacts. Fluorescently labelled plasmids only interact with the electropermeabilized side of the cell facing the cathode. The plasmid interaction with the electropermeabilized cell surface is stable and is not affected by pulses of reversed polarities. Under such conditions, DNA interacts with the two sites of the cell facing the two electrodes. When changing both the pulse polarity and their direction, DNA interacts with the whole membrane cell surface. This is associated with a huge increase in gene expression. This present study demonstrates the relationship between the DNA/membrane surface interaction and the gene transfer efficiency, and it allows to define the experimental conditions to optimize the yield of transfection of mammalian cells.     

Simple and effective method of electroporation for introduction of plasmid and cosmid DNAs to mammalian cells

We have established a simple and efficient method of electroporation applicable to gene transfer in mammalian cells. It uses a single decaying pulse of around 1 ms at room temperature in the medium such as Saline G appropriate for repair of pulse-induced pores in the plasma membrane. Many types of cells (both floating and adherent) could be transformed efficiently by the electric field strengths between 1-2 kV/cm. For instance P3U1, mouse myeloma cell, could be transformed by a pulse at 1.2 kV/cm with the frequency of 10(-2) per viable cells and with survivals of 90%. We have applied these conditions to transform tsBN2 cell line of BHK21/13 by a cosmid clone (approximately 45 kb) carrying the human gene complementing to tsBN2 mutation. Significant levels of transformation were observed for this gene. Since this gene can only work as a whole size (approximately 30 kb), the results show that electroporation is useful to introduce cosmid or possibly genomic DNA to mammalian cells.     

Post-pulse addition of trans-cyclohexane-1,2-diol improves electrotransfer mediated gene expression in mammalian cells

Electric field mediated gene transfer is facing a problem in expression yield due to the poor transfer across the nuclear envelope. Trans-cyclohexane-1,2-diol (TCHD) was shown to significantly increase chemically mediated transfection by collapsing the permeability barrier of the nuclear pore complex. We indeed observed a significant increase in expression by electrotransfer when cells are treated post pulse by a low non toxic concentration of TCHD. This was obtained for different pulsing conditions, cell strains and plasmid constructs. An interesting improvement in cell viability can be obtained. This can significantly enhance the non-viral gene electrical delivery.     

Use of Collagen Gel as a Three-Dimensional In Vitro Model to Study Electropermeabilization and Gene Electrotransfer

Gene electrotransfer is a promising nonviral method that enables transfer of plasmid DNA into cells with electric pulses. Although many in vitro and in vivo studies have been performed, the question of the implied gene electrotransfer mechanisms is largely open. The main obstacle toward efficient gene electrotransfer in vivo is relatively poor mobility of DNA in tissues. Since cells are mechanically coupled to their extracellular environment and act differently compared to standard in vitro conditions, we developed a three-dimensional (3-D) in vitro model of CHO cells embedded in collagen gel as an ex vivo model of tissue to study electropermeabilization and different parameters of gene electrotransfer. For this purpose, we first used propidium iodide to detect electropermeabilization of CHO cells embedded in collagen gel. Then, we analyzed the influence of different concentrations of plasmid DNA and pulse duration on gene electrotransfer efficiency. Our results revealed that even if cells in collagen gel can be efficiently electropermeabilized, gene expression is significantly lower. Gene electrotransfer efficiency in our 3-D in vitro model had similar dependence on concentration of plasmid DNA and pulse duration comparable to in vivo studies, where longer (millisecond) pulses were shown to be more optimal compared to shorter (microsecond) pulses. The presented results demonstrate that our 3-D in vitro model resembles the in vivo situation more closely than conventional 2-D cell cultures and, thus, provides an environment closer to in vivo conditions to study mechanisms of gene electrotransfer.     

Fast kinetics studies of Escherichia coli electrotransformation.

Direct gene transfer is achieved in Escherichia coli by use of square wave electric pulsing. As observed by video monitoring, the field pulse causes bacteria to orientate parallel to the field lines. Rapid kinetic turbidity changes indicate that this process happens quickly. In these circumstances, and in pulsing conditions prone to inducing transformation, only caps are affected by the field. Considerable cytoplasmic ion leakage occurs during the pulse, affecting the interfacial ionic concentration. The pulsing-buffer osmolarity has to be close to that used with protoplasts. Contact between the plasmid and the bacteria can be very short before the pulse but must be present during the pulse. The plasmid remains accessible to externally added DNases up to 5 days after the pulse, suggesting that the transfer step is slow. Electric-field-mediated transfer can be described in two steps: the anchoring process during the pulse, followed by the crossing of the membrane.     

Electropermeabilization of mammalian cells to macromolecules: control by pulse duration.

Membrane electropermeabilization to small molecules depends on several physical parameters (pulse intensity, number, and duration). In agreement with a previous study quantifying this phenomenon in terms of flow (Rols and Teissié, Biophys. J. 58:1089-1098, 1990), we report here that electric field intensity is the deciding parameter inducing membrane permeabilization and controls the extent of the cell surface where the transfer can take place. An increase in the number of pulses enhances the rate of permeabilization. The pulse duration parameter is shown to be crucial for the penetration of macromolecules into Chinese hamster ovary cells under conditions where cell viability is preserved. Cumulative effects are observed when repeated pulses are applied. At a constant number of pulses/pulse duration product, transfer of molecules is strongly affected by the time between pulses. The resealing process appears to be first-order with a decay time linearly related to the pulse duration. Transfer of macromolecules to the cytoplasm can take place only if they are present during the pulse. No direct transfer is observed with a postpulse addition. The mechanism of transfer of macromolecules into cells by electric field treatment is much more complex than the simple diffusion of small molecules through the electropermeabilized plasma membrane.     

Electroporation of nucleic acids into prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by square wave pulses

A novel electroporator is presented that generates adjustable square wave pulses with a maximal pulse strength of 2500 V / 100 A and a pulse length between 0.1 and 15 ms and that efficiently transfects prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Various factors influencing DNA transfer into tissue culture cells, embryonic stem cells and E. coli K12 cells were optimized and the respective electrical pulse profiles monitored.