Antibodies to selected viral disease agents in wild boars from the Czech Republic

Blood samples were collected from wild boar (Sus scrofa) shot during the hunting season from 1999 to 2005 in the Czech Republic. Sera were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the presence of antibodies against classical swine fever virus (CSFV), swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV), Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV), and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Indirect fluorescence antibody test was used for detection of antibodies against porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). Antibodies against ADV, BVDV, PCV-2, and TGEV were detected in 30% (101 of 338), 1% (2 of 352), 43% (57 of 134), and 1% (1 of 134) of wild boars, respectively. Sera of 6,471 and 362 tested wild boars were negative for the presence of antibodies against CSFV and SVDV, respectively. This is the first survey of TGEV antibodies in wild boars and the first serologic survey of viral diseases in wild boars in the Czech Republic. Wild boars in the Czech Republic may act as a potential reservoir of ADV and thus have a role in the epidemiology of this disease.     

Effects of resource dispersion and site familiarity on movements of translocated wild turkeys on fragmented landscapes

Animals in unfamiliar environments may increase exploratory movements, which may result in predation mortalities (the site familiarity hypothesis). Furthermore, increases in resource dispersion may reduce animal foraging time in small patches, and increase movements and home ranges of animals to acquire sufficient resources (the resource dispersion hypothesis). Little is known regarding effects of site familiarity on translocated birds in fragmented landscapes. We translocated 130 eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallapovo silvestris) in a sex ratio of one male to 4 females to 2 study sites that differed in forest fragmentation in MS, USA. Turkeys were captured from sites throughout Mississippi during springs 2009 and 2010. We monitored movements of translocated wild turkeys using radio telemetry. Movement distances and home ranges in 2010 did not differ among birds released in different years, inconsistent with the site familiarity hypothesis. However, movement distances and home ranges of translocated turkeys were greater at the more fragmented site than at the less fragmented site, supporting the resource dispersion hypothesis. Moreover, home range sizes were related positively to within-home-range variability in vegetative greenness measured by the normalized difference vegetation index. Effects of resource dispersion may override effects of site familiarity concerning translocated wild turkeys.     

Experimentally transmitted marble spleen disease in pen-raised wild turkeys.

Pen-raised North American wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo L.) were experimentally infected with marble spleen disease (MSD) to determine their susceptibility to this disease. Gross and microscopic lesions were consistent with experimental MSD in pheasants and domestic turkeys: an enlarged mottled spleen, intranuclear inclusion bodies, and absence of pulmonary edema and hemorrhage. Detectable levels of viral antigen were not demonstrable in sera of turkeys using the agar gell precipitin test.     

Antibodies to selected viral and bacterial pathogens in European wild boars from southcentral Spain

Serum samples from 78 European wild boars (Sus scrofa) harvested during the 1999-2000 hunting season were tested for antibodies to Brucella spp., classical swine fever virus, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Haemophilus parasuis, Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, pseudorabies virus (PRV), porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, Salmonella serogroups B, C, and D, Streptococcus suis, and swine influenza virus (SIV) serotypes H1N1 and H3N2. Samples were collected from Sierra Morena and Montes de Toledo in southcentral Spain. Antibodies were detected to PRV (36%), L. interrogans serovar pomona (12%), PPV (10%), E. rhusiopathiae (5%), SIV serotype H1N1 (4%), Salmonella serogroup B (4%), and Salmonella serogroup C (3%). Our results suggest that more research is needed to describe the epidemiology of infectious diseases of Spanish wild boars.     

Organophosphate toxicity in wild turkeys

An accidental poisoning of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) by O,O-Diethyl O-[p-(methylsulfinyl) phenyl] phosphorothioate is reported. Diagnosis was achieved by history, clinical observations, postmortem lesions, diagnostic therapy and pesticide analysis.     

Feather damage due to mycotic infections in wild turkeys

Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from Pearl River Wildlife Management Area, St. Tammany Parish and from adjacent St. Helena Parish, Louisiana (USA) were observed to have broken and frayed rectrices. The condition was noted in 21% of 90 wild turkeys harvested by hunters during the springs of 1985 through 1988 from the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area. Damage to feathers ranged from mild to severe. Histologic and microbiologic study of five birds disclosed colonization and invasion of the rachis sheath and pulp by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Curvularia, Cladosporium, Dactylella, Exophiala, Helminthosporium and Trichophyton and by Streptomyces. Sterilized normal rectrices from wild turkeys were inoculated with these organisms and subsequently developed damage that was histologically compatible with field cases. The condition was diagnosed as a multiple etiology mycosis. Successful colonization and invasion of experimentally inoculated feathers required addition of moisture and elevation of relative humidity within the cultures. The apparent high moisture requirements of the fungi suggest that late winter and early spring flooding may be a probable predisposing factor for this condition.     

Capillariasis in penned wild turkeys.

Capillariasis caused by Capillaria annulata was associated with dilated crops, emaciation and mortality of 23 juvenile wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) in a captive flock. Gross lesions in the crops ranged from slithtly-thickened lining folds to a thick necrotic diphtheritic membrane covering the entire inside surface. The parasites were in the squamous epithelium. Hygromycin controlled the outbreak.     

Serosurveillance for selected infectious disease agents in wild boars (Sus scrofa) and outdoor pigs in Switzerland

The large abundance of free-ranging wild boars (Sus scrofa) and a trend towards animal friendly outdoor management of domestic pigs lead to an increasing probability of disease transmission between those animal populations. In 2001, an active monitoring was started for classical swine fever (CSF), Aujeszky’s disease (AD) and porcine brucellosis (PB) in wild boars in Switzerland. The objective of this programme was to document the serological status of wild boars regarding the selected pathogens. To continue this serosurveillance, 1,060 wild boar samples were collected during two regular hunting seasons in 2004–2005. Furthermore, in a pilot study, 61 outdoor pigs from 14 farms located in areas with high wild boar densities were sampled in 2004 and serologically tested for AD and PB. All wild boar samples were negative for CSF. Seroprevalence for AD was 2.83% (95% CI 1.91–4.02%). Seroprevalence for PB was 13.5% (95% CI 10.7–16.7%) for the Rose Bengal test and 11.05% (95% CI 8.82–13.61%) for the indirect ELISA. There was no serological evidence for AD in domestic pigs. All tested animals from 13 piggeries were seronegative for PB, but three pigs from the same farm showed doubtful results. Further investigations on the farm did not indicate the presence of PB in the herd. These findings urge the need for better diagnostic tools to obtain reliable results concerning PB prevalence. Since contact and following transmission of infectious agents between infected wild boars and outdoor pigs might occur in the future, it is advisable to include outdoor pigs in areas at risk in routine surveillance programmes.     

Mycoplasma gallopavonis in eastern wild turkeys.

Serum samples and tracheal cultures were collected from eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo sylvestris) trapped for relocation in South Carolina (USA) during 1985 to 1990. Sera were tested for Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae by the rapid plate agglutination and hemagglutination inhibition tests and were found to be negative. Tracheal cultures were negative for all pathogenic Mycoplasma spp., including M. gallisepticum, M. synoviae, M. meleagridis, and M. iowae. However, M. gallopavonis was isolated from every group of wild turkeys tested in 1986 to 1990. These data suggest that M. gallopavonis, which is generally considered nonpathogenic, may be a common microorganism in eastern wild turkeys.     

Infectious disease survey of Rio Grande wild turkeys in the Edwards Plateau of Texas

State wildlife agencies have translocated thousands of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) since the 1930s to reestablish this species. Because of threats to the domestic poultry industry and wild birds, screening for selected infectious agents has become routine since the early 1980s. One of the principal sources for Rio Grande wild turkeys (M. gallopavo intermedia) for translocation purposes was the Edwards Plateau of Texas (USA). Unfortunately, turkey abundance has declined in the southern Edwards Plateau since the late 1970s. Surprisingly few studies have addressed wild turkeys in this region, perhaps reflecting its status as the heart of Rio Grande turkey range. We surveyed 70 free-living Rio Grande wild turkeys from Bandera and Kerr counties, Texas, for evidence of exposure to Salmonella typhimurium, S. pullorum, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M. meleagridis, M. synoviae, Chlamydophila psittaci, and the avian influenza, Newcastle disease, turkey corona, and reticuloendotheliosis viruses. Of these, 80% (56) were seropositive for both M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae on the serum plate antigen test. Ten of these individuals (14% of total) were positive for M. synoviae by hemagglutination inhibition testing. All other serologic tests were negative. Two adult females sampled in Kerr County, whose body mass was significantly less than that of other adult females trapped in the area, tested positive for reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) proviral DNA on polymerase chain reaction. Reticuloendotheliosis virus was isolated from one of these individuals. The pathogenesis, transmission, and/or population-level influences of M. gallisepticum, M. synoviae, and REV in Rio Grande wild turkeys deserves further study.     

Experimental Mycoplasma gallisepticum infections in captive-reared wild turkeys

The effects of Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infections on egg production, fertility, and hatchability were studied in captive-reared wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). Three groups of adult birds, each consisting of four hens and two toms, were exposed to MG by the respiratory route at the beginning of their breeding season. Fourteen control birds received sterile growth medium. Although no mortality of infected or control birds occurred, egg production during the first breeding season after infection was reduced. The mean number of eggs/hen/day produced by infected groups the first breeding season postexposure (PE) was significantly lower than the control value. The mean number of eggs produced daily by the same hens 1 yr later was unaffected by MG infection. The percentage of fertile eggs produced by infected groups was slightly reduced in both the first and second breeding seasons PE. Hatchability of fertile eggs from infected hens was significantly lower than eggs from control hens. Productivity may be impaired if MG infections occur in free-ranging wild turkey populations.     

Occurrence and seasonal transmission of hematozoa in wild turkeys

The occurrence and seasonal patterns of transmission of the blood protozoa of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) were studied at Tallahala Wildlife Management Area (TWMA) (Jasper County, Mississippi, USA). Blood smears obtained from wild turkeys in winter, spring and summer, and from sentinel domestic turkeys throughout the year were examined for Haemoproteus meleagridis and Leucocytozoon smithi. Whole blood from wild turkeys captured in summer was subinoculated into malaria-free domestic turkey poults and recipient birds were examined for Plasmodium spp. The prevalence of H. meleagridis and L. smithi were not different (P greater than 0.05) between adults and juveniles or between male and female turkeys in any season. Leucocytozoon smithi was not detected in poults in summer or in juveniles examined in winter. Sentinel studies and information from wild birds revealed that transmission of H. meleagridis and L. smithi did not overlap. Haemoproteus meleagridis was transmitted from May through November, while L. smithi was transmitted only from January through April. The onset of transmission of H. meleagridis coincided with peak hatching (mid-May) and brood-rearing (May-November) of turkey poults. Plasmodium spp. were not found in turkeys from TWMA (n = 27) nor in birds from three widely separated counties (n = 28) in Mississippi.     

Mechanical properties of the gastrocnemius aponeurosis in wild turkeys

In many muscles, the tendinous structures include both an extramuscular free tendon as well as a sheet-like aponeurosis. In both free tendons and aponeuroses the collagen fascicles are oriented primarily longitudinally, along the muscle's line of action. It is generally assumed that this axis represents the direction of loading for these structures. This assumption is well founded for free tendons, but aponeuroses undergo a more complex loading regime. Unlike free tendons, aponeuroses surround a substantial portion of the muscle belly and are therefore loaded both parallel (longitudinal) and perpendicular (transverse) to a muscle's line of action when contracting muscles bulge to maintain a constant volume. Given this biaxial loading pattern, it is critical to understand the mechanical properties of aponeuroses in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. In this study, we use uniaxial testing of isolated tissue samples from the aponeurosis of the lateral gastrocnemius of wild turkeys to determine mechanical properties of samples loaded longitudinally (along the muscle's line of action) and transversely (orthogonal to the line of action). We find that the aponeurosis has a significantly higher Young's modulus in the longitudinal than in the transverse direction. Our results also show that aponeuroses can behave as efficient springs in both the longitudinal and transverse directions, losing little energy to hysteresis. We also test the failure properties of aponeuroses to quantify the likely safety factor with which these structures operate during muscular force production. These results provide an essential foundation for understanding the mechanical function of aponeuroses as biaxially loaded biological springs.     

Prevalence and identity of coccidia in pen-raised wild turkeys

One hundred nineteen pen-raised wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from 12 locations in nine states in the United States were examined for coccidia by sugar flotation of intestinal contents and mucosa or by subinoculating the contents into uninfected domestic turkeys. Seventy-eight (66%) of the turkeys were positive for coccidia. There were no differences in the frequency of coccidia among adult, sub-adult or juvenile turkeys. More females (75%) were infected than males (48%). The species of coccidia from 30 of the turkeys were identified based on microscopic examination of oocysts, fresh scrapings, stained sections and inoculations of bobwhites (Colinus virginianus). The frequency of each species was Eimeria meleagrimitis (97%), E. gallopavonis (47%), E. meleagridis (27%), E. dispersa (17%), E. innocua-E. subrotunda (13%), E. adenoeides (7%) and an undescribed species (3%). Of the 30 turkeys in which the species of coccidia was determined, 30% had a single species infection, 40% had two species, 20% had three species and 10% had four species.     

Antibodies to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in wild rodent sera in Egypt

Specific antibodies to lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus were detected in sera of wild rodents trapped in different regions of Egypt. The highest proportion of positive sera (11.5%) was found in Sinaa Governorate of the Asian Continent, followed by Sharkia Governorate (5.6%) adjacent to Sinaa and Giza Governorate (1.8%). In Upper Egypt, however all 610 rodent sera collected in Aswan, Red sea Pernees and New Valley adjacent to Sudan were negative. The highest percentage of positive sera was in Rattus rattus frugivorus and Mus musculus species.     

Serologic survey for selected infectious disease agents in raccoons from Illinois

The determination of serologic titers to infectious organisms is a valuable tool for quantitating exposure to disease organisms. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) were live-trapped from September 1989 to October 1993 and samples collected from two distinct locations in west-central Illinois (USA); a state recreational facility (Park) and privately owned farming property (Farm). Sera were submitted for testing Leptospira interrogans (serovars bratislava, canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemmorhagiae, and pomona), canine distemper virus (CDV), pseudorabies virus (PV), and Toxoplasma gondii. Two-hundred and twenty-two (48%) of 459 raccoons were seropositive for L. interrogans. Eighty-five (23%) out of 368 raccoons were seropositive for canine distemper virus. Eighty-two (17%) of 479 raccoons raccoons were seropositive for pseudorabies virus. One hundred and eight-four (49%) of 379 raccoons were seropositive for T. gondii. A significant difference (P < 0.05) in seroprevalence for L. interrogans between the park (43%) and farm (52%) areas was found. A correlation between increasing age and seroprevalence was found for L. interrogans, CDV, PV, and T. gondii. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in seroprevalence for T. gondii during the spring trapping seasons (73%), when compared with the fall (33%). This type of information on exposure to infectious agents is important for developing control programs to manage raccoon-human and raccoon-domestic animals interactions.     

Absence of avian pox in wild turkeys in central Mississippi.

Eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) (n = 1,023), obtained during winter, spring, and summer from 1983 to 1988 on Tallahala Wildlife Management Area (TWMA) (Jasper County, Mississippi, USA) were examined for avian pox lesions. Domestic turkey poults (n = 152) maintained on the area for 1 to 2 wk periods from 1987 to 1989 also were examined. Neither wild nor domestic birds showed gross evidence of pox virus infection. This study indicated that avian pox was not endemic in wild turkeys at TWMA.     

Hematozoa of wild turkeys from the midwestern United States: translocation of wild turkeys and its potential role in the introduction of Plasmodium kempi

Twenty-three of 310 blood samples taken from live-trapped eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) from Missouri (USA), and hunter-killed birds from Wisconsin, North Dakota and Minnesota (USA), and inoculated into domestic broad-breasted-white turkey poults were positive for two species of Plasmodium. Twenty-one of the positive samples were infected with P. (Novyella) kempi, and two samples from Wisconsin were infected with P. (Giovannolaia) lophurae. Twenty percent of 310 blood smears were positive for Haemoproteus melagridis, while only 3% were infected with Leucocytozoon smithi. A statistically higher prevalence of Plasmodium spp. from 1983 to 1984 was observed in Wisconsin, and in the samples from Minnesota when compared with both Missouri and Wisconsin. Turkeys from Wisconsin and Minnesota had both a statistically higher prevalence and mean intensity of H. meleagridis than birds from Missouri. Evidence indicates that P. kempi has been introduced into other states along with the vertebrate hosts. It is suggested that greater care should be exercised when translocated wild turkeys are introduced into areas where there are other endangered or threatened avian species.