<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cabruca</Emphasis> agroforests in southern Bahia,Brazil: tree component,management practices and tree species conservation

In southern Bahia, Brazil, cabrucas are the traditional agroforests in which cacao trees are planted under thinned-out native forests. To analyze the role of cabrucas in tree species conservation, we inventoried the non-cocoa trees in 1.0 ha plots of cabruca in 16 cocoa farms and compared our results with a similar survey undertaken in the early 1960s in the same region to analyze the long term changes. We also interviewed 160 cocoa farmers to investigate their preferences for species and the main practices used in managing shade trees. The cabrucas showed high levels of tree diversity for an agroforestry system (Shannon index ranging from 2.21 to 3.52) and also high variation in structure and composition among the different farms. Forest specialist trees accounted for most species (63.9%) in the survey and were among the species most preferred by the farmers, although we found evidence that some of these trees are gradually being replaced by other species. Our results indicate that cabrucas are poor substitutes for undisturbed forests in terms of tree species richness, but their presence in human-altered landscapes is of utmost importance to the conservation of forest tree species as they increase overall heterogeneity and may serve as ecological corridors, additional habitats, and buffer zones.     

Dung Beetle and Terrestrial Mammal Diversity in Forests, Indigenous Agroforestry Systems and Plantain Monocultures in Talamanca, Costa Rica

In order to explore the importance of indigenous agroforestry systems for biodiversity conservation, we compared the abundance, species richness and diversity of dung beetles and terrestrial mammals across a gradient of different land use types from agricultural monocultures (plantains) to agroforestry systems (cocoa and banana) and forests in the BriBri and Cabécar indigenous reserves in Talamanca, Costa Rica. A total of 132,460 dung beetles of 52 species and 913 tracks of 27 terrestrial mammal species were registered. Dung beetle species richness and diversity were greatest in the forests, intermediate in the agroforestry systems and lowest in the plantain monocultures, while dung beetle abundance was greatest in the plantain monocultures. The number of mammal tracks per plot was significantly higher in forests than in plantain monocultures, whereas mammal species richness was higher in forests than in either cocoa agroforestry systems or plantain monocultures. Species composition of both terrestrial mammals and dung beetles also varied across the different land use types. Our study indicates that indigenous cocoa and banana agroforestry systems maintain an intermediate level of biodiversity (which is less than that of the original forest but significantly greater than that of plantain monocultures) and provide suitable habitat for a number of forest-dependent species. Although the agroforestry systems appear to serve as favorable habitats for many terrestrial mammal species, their potential positive contribution to mammal conservation is being offset by heavy hunting pressure in the reserves. As in other agricultural landscapes, the conservation of biodiversity in Talamanca will depend not only on maintaining the existing forest patches and reducing the conversion of traditional agroforestry systems to monocultures, but also on reducing hunting pressure.     

Movement Behavior of Native and Invasive Small Mammals Shows Logging May Facilitate Invasion in a Tropical Rain Forest

Invasive species pose one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. This study investigates the extent to which human disturbance to natural ecosystems facilitates the spread of non‐native species, focusing on a small mammal community in selectively logged rain forest, Sabah, Borneo. The microhabitat preferences of the invasive Rattus rattus and three native species of small mammal were examined in three‐dimensional space by combining the spool‐and‐line technique with a novel method for quantifying fine‐scale habitat selection. These methods allowed the detection of significant differences for each species between the microhabitats used compared with alternative, available microhabitats that were avoided. Rattus rattus showed the greatest preference for heavily disturbed habitats, and in contrast to two native small mammals of the genus Maxomys, R. rattus showed high levels of arboreal behavior, frequently leaving the forest floor and traveling through the understory and midstory forest strata. This behavior may enable R. rattus to effectively utilize the complex three‐dimensional space of the lower strata in degraded forests, which is characterized by dense vegetation. The behavioral flexibility of R. rattus to operate in both terrestrial and arboreal space may facilitate its invasion into degraded forests. Human activities that generate heavily disturbed habitats preferred by R. rattus may promote the establishment of this invasive species in tropical forests in Borneo, and possibly elsewhere. We present this as an example of a synergistic effect, whereby forest disturbance directly threatens biodiversity and indirectly increases the threat posed by invasive species, creating habitat conditions that facilitate the establishment of non‐native fauna.     

Effects of rain forest logging on species richness and assemblage composition of small mammals in Southeast Asia

Aim The effects of logging and habitat degradation on the richness and abundance of small mammals in Asian rain forests are largely unknown. This work compares the species richness, dominance and evenness of small non‐volant mammals between logged and unlogged forests, and assesses whether assemblage variability (β‐diversity) is similar between forest types. Location Southeast Asia, northern Borneo (Sabah, Malaysia), Sunda‐shelf. Methods We surveyed species‐rich assemblages of small non‐volant mammals in three unlogged and three logged forests for 2 years. At each forest site, we sampled a permanently marked transect and two additional sites in three trapping sessions. All analyses were performed at both levels to include the effects of local abundances and point estimates, separately from the relative abundances of species on a more regional scale. Results We trapped a total of 1218 individuals of 28 species. Eleven common species accounted for 95% of all captures. Species richness and diversity were significantly higher in unlogged forest (27 species) than in logged forest (17 species). This was mainly attributable to the smaller number of rarely recorded species in logged forest (five compared with 16 in unlogged forest, with a total of fewer than 10 captures). However, all common species were present in both logged and unlogged forests, and our analyses revealed similar patterns of dominance, evenness and fluctuations in abundance. Hence overall assemblage composition in multivariate space did not differ greatly between forest types. Assemblages of Muridae and Tupaiidae showed similar population fluctuations in space and time, indicating that the ecology of these taxa may be partially driven by the same environmental factors. Main conclusions Although species were distributed patchily within sites, analyses at local and regional scales revealed similar patterns in diversity and assemblage variability, suggesting that effects of forest modification did not differ extensively locally and regionally, but had a profound effect on rare species. Our results emphasize the importance and conservation value of logged forest stands that are able to hold a large proportion of the small mammals also found in unlogged forests. Rare and more specialized species are more vulnerable to forest degradation than commonly caught species, resulting in the complete loss, or a decrease in numbers, of certain groups, such as arboreal small mammals and Viverridae.     

Structure of Small Mammal Assemblages Across Flooded and Unflooded Gallery Forests of the Amazonia‐Cerrado Ecotone

Habitat heterogeneity may affect the structure of animal assemblages even within apparently homogenous landscapes. Gallery forests of the Amazonia‐Cerrado ecotone have a small‐scale patchiness that is induced by river system dynamics. Gallery forests that never flood are located in upper areas of watercourse margins, whereas seasonally flooded gallery forests are located at lower ground along those margins. We tested the prediction that the assemblage structure of small non‐volant mammals of these two types of forests is distinct and arises from the ecological heterogeneity induced by seasonal floods. We found that species composition differed between forest types, with arboreal species dominating in the seasonally flooded forests and a more balanced distribution of arboreal and terrestrial species in unflooded forests. We found no differences in species abundance between habitats, but species richness was higher in unflooded forests. We hypothesize that this difference is due to decreased resource availability for strictly terrestrial species in seasonally flooded forests. Relative biomass of seasonally flooded forests was more than twice that of unflooded forests due to the dominance of large‐bodied didelphid species in that assemblage. Our results suggest that the ecological heterogeneity created by seasonal floods is central to maintaining diverse assemblages in this region. The preservation of both unflooded and flooded gallery forests, which are under high human pressure from deforestation, agricultural conversion, and implementation of dams, may be crucial to preserving small mammal diversity at the landscape scale.     

Recovery of species richness and conservation of native Atlantic forest trees in the cacao plantations of southern Bahia in Brazil

The Atlantic forests of southern Bahia in Brazil present great species richness and a high degree of endemism. A large part of these native forests were transformed into cacao plantations in an agroforestry system known locally as cabrucas, where native trees were culled and cacao was planted under the shade of remaining trees. The present study analyzed the influence of time of implantation (age) and time of abandonment of management practices on tree species diversity of cabruca plantations to evaluate the capacity for conservation and recovery of species richness of native Atlantic Forest trees in cabrucas. Phytosociological surveys were conducted in five cabrucas with different conditions of age and state of abandonment. All trees, including hemiepiphytes and excluding the cacao plants, with a minimum stem diameter of 10 cm at breast height, were surveyed within a 3-ha sampling area in each plantation. A total of 2514 individual trees belonging to 293 species and 52 families were recorded in the five cabrucas. The Shannon diversity index varied from 3.31 to 4.22 among the cabrucas and was positively correlated with the time of abandonment (r = 0.97). The new cabrucas showed the highest values of estimated total richness (Chao) and the highest proportion of late successional species than the old ones. All areas preserved a very high proportion of native forest species while the three old cabrucas showed a higher proportion of exotic species than the two new ones. Thus the exotic species seem to replace more of the native species in the long run because of management practices and local preferences. The cabrucas presented also a high capacity for the regeneration of tree species richness after abandonment. Simple alterations in management practices could improve the recruitment of late successional species in these areas. Economic incentives may be necessary for the farmers to adopt management practices to retain native species which bring no economic returns.     

Can Joint Carbon and Biodiversity Management in Tropical Agroforestry Landscapes Be Optimized?

Managing ecosystems for carbon storage may also benefit biodiversity conservation, but such a potential ‘win-win’ scenario has not yet been assessed for tropical agroforestry landscapes. We measured above- and below-ground carbon stocks as well as the species richness of four groups of plants and eight of animals on 14 representative plots in Sulawesi, Indonesia, ranging from natural rainforest to cacao agroforests that have replaced former natural forest. The conversion of natural forests with carbon stocks of 227–362 Mg C ha⁻¹ to agroforests with 82–211 Mg C ha⁻¹ showed no relationships to overall biodiversity but led to a significant loss of forest-related species richness. We conclude that the conservation of the forest-related biodiversity, and to a lesser degree of carbon stocks, mainly depends on the preservation of natural forest habitats. In the three most carbon-rich agroforestry systems, carbon stocks were about 60% of those of natural forest, suggesting that 1.6 ha of optimally managed agroforest can contribute to the conservation of carbon stocks as much as 1 ha of natural forest. However, agroforestry systems had comparatively low biodiversity, and we found no evidence for a tight link between carbon storage and biodiversity. Yet, potential win-win agroforestry management solutions include combining high shade-tree quality which favours biodiversity with cacao-yield adapted shade levels.     

The invasive Yellow Crazy Ant and the decline of forest ant diversity in Indonesian cacao agroforests

Throughout the tropics, agroforests are often the only remaining habitat with a considerable tree cover. Agroforestry systems can support high numbers of species and are therefore frequently heralded as the future for tropical biodiversity conservation. However, anthropogenic habitat modification can facilitate species invasions that may suppress native fauna. We compared the ant fauna of lower canopy trees in natural rainforest sites with that of cacao trees in agroforests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia in order to assess the effects of agroforestry on occurrence of the Yellow Crazy Ant Anoplolepis gracilipes, a common invasive species in the area, and its effects on overall ant richness. The agroforests differed in the type of shade-tree composition, tree density, canopy cover, and distance to the village. On average, 43% of the species in agroforests also occurred in the lower canopy of nearby primary forest and the number of forest ant species that occurred on cacao trees was not related to agroforestry characteristics. However, A. gracilipes was the most common non-forest ant species, and forest ant richness decreased significantly with the presence of this species. Our results indicate that agroforestry may have promoted the occurrence of A. gracilipes, possibly because tree management in agroforests negatively affects ant species that depend on trees for nesting and foraging, whereas A. gracilipes is a generalist when it comes to nesting sites and food preference. Thus, agroforestry management that includes the thinning of tree stands can facilitate ant invasions, thereby threatening the potential of cultivated land for the conservation of tropical ant diversity.     

Importance of riparian remnants for frog species diversity in a highly fragmented rainforest

Tropical forests undergo continuous transformation to other land uses, resulting in landscapes typified by forest fragments surrounded by anthropogenic habitats. Small forest fragments, specifically strip-shaped remnants flanking streams (referred to as riparian remnants), can be particularly important for the maintenance and conservation of biodiversity within highly fragmented forests. We compared frog species diversity between riparian remnants, other forest fragments and cattle pastures in a tropical landscape in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. We found similar species richness in the three habitats studied and a similar assemblage structure between riparian remnants and forest fragments, although species composition differed by 50 per cent. Frog abundance was halved in riparian remnants compared with forest fragments, but was twice that found in pastures. Our results suggest that riparian remnants play an important role in maintaining a portion of frog species diversity in a highly fragmented forest, particularly during environmentally stressful (hot and dry) periods. In this regard, however, the role of riparian remnants is complementary, rather than substitutive, with respect to the function of other forest fragments within the fragmented forest.     

The conservation value of cacao agroforestry for bird functional diversity in tropical agricultural landscapes

Cacao agroforestry have been considered as biodiversity‐friendly farming practices by maintaining habitats for a high diversity of species in tropical landscapes. However, little information is available to evaluate whether this agrosystem can maintain functional diversity, given that agricultural changes can affect the functional components, but not the taxonomic one (e.g., species richness). Thus, considering functional traits improve the understanding of the agricultural impacts on biodiversity. Here, we measured functional diversity (functional richness‐FD, functional evenness‐FEve, and functional divergence‐Rao) and taxonomic diversity (species richness and Simpson index) to evaluate changes of bird diversity in cacao agroforestry in comparison with nearby mature forests (old‐growth forests) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used data from two landscapes with constraining areas of mature forest (49% Una and 4.8% Ilhéus) and cacao agroforestry cover (6% and 82%, respectively). To remove any bias of species richness and to evaluate assembly processes (functional overdispersion or clustering), all functional indices were adjusted using null models. Our analyses considered the entire community, as well as separately for forest specialists, habitat generalists, and birds that contribute to seed dispersal (frugivores/granivores) or invertebrate removal (insectivores). Our findings showed that small cacao agroforestry in the forested landscape sustains functional diversity (FD and FEve) as diverse as nearby forests when considering the entire community, forest specialist, and habitat generalists. However, we observed declines for frugivores/granivores and insectivores (FD and Rao). These responses of bird communities differed from those observed by taxonomic diversity, suggesting that even species‐rich communities in agroforestry may capture lower functional diversity. Furthermore, communities in both landscapes showed either functional clustering or neutral processes as the main driver of functional assembly. Functional clustering may indicate that local conditions and resources were changed or lost, while neutral assemblies may reveal high functional redundancy at the landscape scale. In Ilhéus, the neutral assembly predominance suggests an effect of functional homogenization between habitats. Thus, the conservation value of cacao agroforestry to harbor species‐rich communities and ecosystem functions relies on smallholder production with reduced farm management in a forested landscape. Finally, we emphasize that seed dispersers and insectivores should be the priority conservation targets in cacao systems.     

Ecological outcomes of agroforests and restoration 15 years after planting

Large‐scale forest restoration relies on approaches that are cost‐effective and economically attractive to farmers, and in this context agroforestry systems may be a valuable option. Here, we compared ecological outcomes among (1) 12–15‐year‐old coffee agroforests established with several native shade trees, (2) 12–15‐year‐old high‐diversity restoration plantations, and (3) reference old‐growth forests, within a landscape restoration project in the Pontal do Paranapanema region, in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. We compared the aboveground biomass, canopy cover, and abundance, richness, and composition of trees, and the regenerating saplings in the three forest types. In addition, we investigated the landscape drivers of natural regeneration in the restoration plantations and coffee agroforests. Reference forests had a higher abundance of trees and regenerating saplings, but had similar levels of species richness compared to coffee agroforests. High‐diversity agroforests and restoration plantations did not differ in tree abundance. However, compared to restoration plantations, agroforests showed higher abundance and species richness of regenerating saplings, a higher proportion of animal‐dispersed species, and higher canopy cover. The abundance of regenerating saplings declined with increasing density of coffee plants, thus indicating a potential trade‐off between productivity and ecological benefits. High‐diversity coffee agroforests provide a cost‐effective and ecologically viable alternative to high‐diversity native tree plantations for large‐scale forest restoration within agricultural landscapes managed by local communities, and should be included as part of the portfolio of reforestation options used to promote the global agenda on forest and landscape restoration.     

Ecological outcomes and livelihood benefits of community‐managed agroforests and second growth forests in Southeast Brazil

The Forest and Landscape Restoration movement has emerged as an approach to reconcile biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services provisioning and human well‐being in degraded landscapes, but little is known so far about the potential of different reforestation methods to achieve these objectives. Based on this gap, we assessed the ecological outcomes and local livelihood benefits of community‐managed agroforests and second growth forests to assist natural regeneration in the coastal Atlantic Forest of Brazil. We investigated and compared agroforests and secondary forests according to their structure and floristic composition in 51 circular plots of 314 m², their role in supporting local livelihoods (45 semi‐structured interviews) and the use and cultural importance of plant species (61 interviews). Agroforests and, more remarkably, managed secondary forests (1) re‐established a well‐developed forest structure, with a higher density of tree‐sized individuals and similar basal area compared to nearby old growth forests; (2) were composed by a rich array of native species, including five threatened species, but had lower species richness than old growth remnants; and (3) improved local livelihoods by supplying market valuable and culturally important plants, including 231 native ethnospecies. Overall, local production systems showed remarkable potential to engage smallholders of developing tropical countries in Forest and Landscape Restoration and contribute to achieve its overall goals. We advocate the promotion of these systems as effective Forest and Landscape Restoration approaches in multi‐scale programs and policies.     

The contribution of cacao agroforests to the conservation of lower canopy ant and beetle diversity in Indonesia

The ongoing destruction of tropical rainforests has increased the interest in the potential value of tropical agroforests for the conservation of biodiversity. Traditional, shaded agroforests may support high levels of biodiversity, for some groups even approaching that of undisturbed tropical forests. However, it is unclear to what extent forest fauna is represented in this diversity and how management affects forest fauna in agroforests. We studied lower canopy ant and beetle fauna in cacao agroforests and forests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, a region dominated by cacao agroforestry. We compared ant and beetle species richness and composition in forests and cacao agroforests and studied the impact of two aspects of management intensification (the decrease in shade tree diversity and in shade canopy cover) on ant and beetle diversity. The agroforests had three types of shade that represented a decrease in tree diversity (high, intermediate and low diversity). Species richness of ants and beetles in the canopies of the cacao trees was similar to that found in lower canopy forest trees. However, the composition of ant and beetle communities differed greatly between the agroforest and forest sites. Forest beetles suffered profoundly from the conversion to agroforests: only 12.5% of the beetle species recorded in the forest sites were also found in the agroforests and those species made up only 5% of all beetles collected from cacao. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in agroforests, with 75% of all species encountered in the forest sites also occurring on cacao. The reduction of shade tree diversity had no negative effect on ants and beetles on cacao trees. Beetle abundances and non-forest ant species richness even increased with decreasing shade tree diversity. Thinning of the shade canopy was related to a decrease in richness of forest ant species on cacao trees but not of beetles. The contrasting responses of ants and beetles to shade tree management emphasize that conservation plans that focus on one taxonomic group may not work for others. Overall ant and beetle diversity can remain high in shaded agroforests but the conservation of forest ants and beetles in particular depends primarily on the protection of natural forests, which for forest ants can be complemented by the conservation of adjacent shaded cacao agroforests.     

Small mammal assemblages in a disturbed tropical landscape at Pozuzo,Peru

Deforestation in the Peruvian pre-montane forests has increased alarmingly in recent years. Particularly, fragmentation in these forests takes place against a background of very extensive continuous forest. Until now, no studies have detailed how Peruvian small mammals responded to forest fragmentation. In this paper, we report the results of an assessment of nonvolant small mammal fauna in forest remnants (one large fragment and one small fragment) and cattle pasture in a disturbed landscape at Pozuzo, formerly a pre-montane tropical forest in central Peru. In each forest remnant, we quantify habitat parameters and identified small mammals to know if there is a relationship between forest remnant size or microhabitat structure and small mammal assemblages. In addition, we investigated the influence of habitat structure on the presence of small mammal species. We did not find any evidence that habitat structure in large fragment was greater than small fragment. Actually, both forest remnants presented habitat features typical of forests subject to higher levels of disturbance. We found that abundance of small trees (10 - 19 cm DBH) was positively associated with the presence of Marmosops noctivagus, but negatively with the presence of Oecomys bicolor. Likewise, the presence of the arboreal Rhipidomys leucodactylus was associated with the abundance of larger trees (DBH > 50 cm). We recorded 12 small mammal species in large fragment, 9 in small fragment and 3 in cattle pasture. No significant differences were found in species richness between both fragments, but marsupial abundance in the small fragment was greater than large fragment. At Pozuzo, we recorded 9 species restricted to forest habitat and 3 to forest and cattle pastures. However, it is necessary to assess more fragments to improve our knowledge about species survival in this landscape.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Polylepis</Emphasis> woodland remnants as biodiversity islands in the Bolivian high Andes

Mountain forests deserve special attention from ecologists and conservation biologists given the ecosystem services they provide to society, and their threat under global change. In the subalpine region of the Andes, Polylepis woodlands occur as arboreal islands in a matrix of grassland and scrub. Due to overgrazing and burning, however, these woodland patches are believed to cover only 11% of their potential area in Bolivia, core area for Polylepis. We reviewed the knowledge on the species diversity for the Bolivian Polylepis woodland remnants, assessed the conservation status of the occurring species, determined their trophic niche, and related species richness with climatic variables and elevation. Based in 31 publications, we found 780 identified species occurring in Polylepis woodlands: 425 plants, 266 birds, 46 mammals, 35 butterflies and 8 reptiles. Ten of the 13 Bolivian Polylepis species, as well as 7 other plant species, 14 bird species and 4 mammal species were categorized as threatened or near threatened according to IUCN criteria. In general, plant species richness increased with increased precipitation and length of the growth season, while it decreased with increasing elevation. There was a positive relationship between bird species richness, precipitation and length of the growth season. The highest bird endemism in Polylepis woodland remnants occurred at intermediate elevations, temperatures and precipitation. Mammal species richness decreased with increasing maximum temperature. Finally, we discuss the most important knowledge gaps regarding biodiversity in Bolivian Polylepis woodland remnants.     

Non flying mammals and landscape changes in the tropical rain forest region of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico

The rapid and extensive conversion of Neotropical rain forests to a landscape consisting of pasture lands and other agricultural habitats has meant the local disappearance fragmentation and isolation of vertebrate populations To avoid further losses in biodiversity in Neotropical rain forests, it is imperative to determine how the different species that constitute the different vertebrate communities have responded to the anthropogenic alterations of their natural habitats To provide data in this direction we sampled non flying mammals in 35 forest fragments, in six disturbed forest sites in 12 regenerating forests, in 20 arboreal agricultural habitats (cacao coffee, mixed, citrus and allspice), in four live fence sites and in four pasture sites at Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz Mexico Sampling indicated that area of forest fragments and isolating distance were important variables influencing species richness Disturbed forest had fewer species and individuals present and supported a lower non flying mammal biomass than undisturbed and regenerating forests Shaded plantations (cacao coffee and mixed) were richer in species and in individuals than unshaded ones (citrus, allspice) Species richness in forests and agricultural habitats were associated to horizontal plant diversity and vertical foliage diversity Pasture habitats were the poorest man-made habitats in non flying mammal species Live fences supported a higher biomass and species of non flying mammals than pastures and were similar to forest and shaded man-made habitats in species assemblages     

Conserving forest tree diversity in Guinée Forestière (Guinea,West Africa): the role of coffee-based agroforests

In the current deforestation context, agroforestry is increasingly considered in the tropical zone for its potential contribution to biodiversity conservation. In Guinée Forestière (Guinea, West Africa), coffee-based species rich agroforests are currently expanding on agricultural land around most villages. To assess the role these agroforests play with respect to biodiversity conservation, we compared their tree structure and diversity with those of a neighbouring natural forest. Eighty plots were sampled using a variable area transect method (60 plots distributed into 3 village agroforests, 20 natural forest plots). The structure of coffee-based agroforests showed obvious signs of farmers’ management: density of mature trees was significantly lower than in natural forest and most juvenile trees were eliminated and replaced by coffee trees. However, tree seedling density was not significantly different than in natural forest. Tree species richness and diversity were also lower than in natural forest but much higher than in any other agricultural or agroforestry land use system. These results are close to those obtained in the coffee-based agroforests of Central America, confirming that coffee-based agroforests retain many forest species that play a key role in the conservation of regional forest tree diversity.     

Habitat patch and matrix effects on small-mammal persistence in Amazonian forest fragments

Tropical forest mammal assemblages are widely affected by the twin effects of habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. We evaluated the effects of forest patch metrics, habitat structure, age of patch isolation, and landscape metrics on the species richness, abundance and composition of small mammals at 23 forest fragments (ranging in size from 43 to 7,035 ha) in a highly deforested 3,609-km² landscape of southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. Using pitfall traps and both terrestrial and arboreal traplines of Sherman, Tomahawk and snap traps, we captured a total of 844 individuals over 34,900 trap-nights representing 26 species and 20 genera of small-mammals, including 13 rodent and 13 marsupial species. We also consider the effects of distance from forest edges on species occupancy and abundance. Overall small mammal abundance, species richness and species composition were primarily affected by the quality of the open-habitat matrix of cattle pastures, rather than by patch metrics such as fragment size. Ultimately, small mammal community structure was determined by a combination of both landscape- and patch-scale variables. Knowledge of the anthropogenic factors that govern small mammal community structure is of critical importance for managing the persistence of forest vertebrates in increasingly fragmented neotropical forest landscapes.     

Resilient forest faunal communities in South Africa: a legacy of palaeoclimatic change and extinction filtering?

Aim To examine the influence of climatic extinction filtering during the last glacial maximum (LGM; c. 18,000 yr bp ) and of the subsequent recolonization of forest faunas on contemporary assemblage composition in southern African forests. Location South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe. Methods Data comprised presence/absence by quarter‐degree grid cell for forest‐dependent and forest‐associated birds, non‐volant mammals and frogs. Twenty‐one forest subregions were assigned to one of three previously identified forest types: Afrotemperate, scarp, and Indian Ocean coastal belt. Differences among forest types were examined through patterns and gradients of species richness and endemism, assemblage similarity, species turnover, and coefficients of species dispersal direction. The influence of contemporary environment on assemblage composition was investigated using partial canonical correspondence analysis. Several alternative biogeographical hypotheses for the recolonization of forest faunas were tested. Results Afrotemperate faunas are relatively species‐poor, have low species turnover, and are unsaturated and infiltrated by generalist species. In northern and central regions, communities are supplemented by recolonization from scarp forest refugia, and among frogs by autochthanous speciation in localized refugia. Scarp faunas are relatively species‐rich, contain many forest‐dependent species, have high species turnover, and overlap with coastal and Afrotemperate faunas. Coastal forests are relatively species‐rich with high species turnover. Main conclusions Afrotemperate communities were affected most by climatic extinction filtering events. Scarp forests were Afrotemperate refugia during the LGM and are a contemporary overlap zone between Afrotemperate and coastal forest. Coastal faunas derive from post‐LGM colonization along the eastern seaboard from tropical East African refugia. The greatest diversity is achieved in scarp and coastal forest faunas in northern KwaZulu–Natal province. This historical centre of diversity has influenced the faunal diversity of nearly all other forests in South Africa. The response of vertebrate taxa to large‐scale, historical processes is dependent on their relative mobility: forest birds best illustrate patterns resulting from post‐glacial faunal dispersal, while among mammals and frogs the legacy of climatic extinction filtering remains stronger.     

Seasonal contrasts in the response of coffee ants to agroforestry shade-tree management

In many tropical landscapes, agroforestry systems are the last forested ecosystems, providing shade, having higher humidity, mitigating potential droughts, and possessing more species than any other crop system. Here, we tested the hypothesis that higher levels of shade and associated humidity in agroforestry enhance coffee ant richness more during the dry than rainy season, comparing ant richness in 22 plots of three coffee agroforestry types in coastal Ecuador: simple-shade agroforests (intensively managed with low tree species diversity), complex-shade agroforests (extensively managed with intermediate tree species diversity) and abandoned coffee agroforests (abandoned for 10-15 yr and resembling secondary forests). Seasonality affected responses of ant richness but not composition to agroforestry management, in that most species were observed in abandoned coffee agroforests in the dry season. In the rainy season, however, most species were found in simple-shade agroforests, and complex agroforestry being intermediate. Foraging coffee ants species composition did not change differently according to agroforestry type and season. Results show that shade appears to be most important in the dry seasons, while a mosaic of different land-use types may provide adequate environmental conditions to ant species, maximizing landscape-wide richness throughout the year.