耻垢分枝杆菌MSMEG_6281 过表达对菌株生长和形态的影响

【目的】耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2155,mc2155)MSMEG_6281为结核分枝杆菌自溶素Rv3717的同源蛋白,通过建立过表达MSMEG_6281的耻垢分枝杆菌菌株,推测该蛋白对耻垢分枝杆菌肽聚糖代谢的影响。【方法】利用RT-PCR方法检测乙胺丁醇(Ethambutol,EMB)作用后MSMEG_6281基因的表达变化;以耻垢分枝杆菌基因组DNA为模板,采用PCR技术克隆MSMEG_6281基因,构建分枝杆菌表达质粒p VV16-MSMEG_6281,进一步建立MSMEG_6281过表达的耻垢分枝杆菌菌株;利用生长曲线检测MSMEG_6281过表达对耻垢分枝杆菌生长的影响;利用扫描电子显微镜分析MSMEG_6281过表达引起的耻垢分枝杆菌形态变化。【结果】EMB处理引起MSMEG_6281基因表达上调;构建了过表达MSMGE_6281的耻垢分枝杆菌菌株(mc2155/p VV16-MSMEG_6281);过表达MSMGE_6281的耻垢分枝杆菌生长缓慢,菌体形态由短杆状转变为长杆状。【结论】MSMGE_6281的过表达可改变耻垢分枝杆菌形态。MSMGE_6281的功能与细胞壁肽聚糖水解相关,在mc2155细胞壁形态维持方面发挥重要作用。     

肽聚糖脱乙酰酶Rv1096对分枝杆菌与宿主细胞相互作用的影响

目的探讨结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb)肽聚糖脱乙酰酶Rv1096对分枝杆菌与宿主细胞相互作用的影响。方法利用过表达Rv1096基因的重组耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis, MS)_Rv1096,通过差速离心及胰蛋白酶消化试验,确定Rv1096蛋白的亚细胞定位;通过氨基酸定点突变联合伴刀豆凝集素A(Concanavalin A, ConA)免疫印迹确定Rv1096的O-甘露糖基化位点;运用刃天青显色法检测MS_Rv1096对溶菌酶的抵抗力;通过巨噬细胞感染试验,分析了Rv1096对耻垢分枝杆菌细胞内存活能力和宿主细胞炎症应答的影响。结果确定了Rv1096在重组耻垢分枝杆菌MS_Rv1096中的亚细胞定位在细胞壁;发现Rv1096蛋白含有三个O-甘露糖基修饰位点(~(265)Thr,~(266)Ser,~(267)Ser);细胞外测试结果表明,Rv1096能增强耻垢分枝杆菌对溶菌酶的抵抗能力,最低抑菌质量浓度从1.5 mg/mL升至2.5 mg/mL,而细胞感染显示其并不能显著增强耻垢分枝杆菌在人单核细胞白血病细胞(THP-1细胞)内的存活能力;定量PCR检测结果显示,过表达Rv1096的耻垢分枝杆菌刺激THP-1细胞分泌炎症因子(TNF-α,IL-6和IL-1β)的能力显著下降。通过平行对比证明若删除O-甘露糖基化位点(~(265)Thr,~(266)Ser,~(267)Ser),对Rv1096基因功能无显著影响。结论 Rv1096是一个细胞壁相关蛋白,具有三个O-甘露糖基化位点。过表达Rv1096对耻垢杆菌在宿主细胞内的存活能力无显著影响,但能够降低宿主细胞对耻垢分枝杆菌的炎症因子应答,且上述功能不受O-甘露糖基化修饰影响。     

抗结核海洋放线菌的筛选及菌株HY286生物活性研究

海洋放线菌是研究抗结核药物及其先导化合物的重要来源。以耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis,Msm)作为指示菌,采用平板对峙法,从漳州浅滩泥土分离的77株放线菌中筛选出9株对Msm具有抑制作用的抗性放线菌,其中1株对Msm具有高效抑制作用的拮抗放线菌HY286。通过对菌株HY286的菌落形态观察、生理生化鉴定及16S r DNA序列分析,初步鉴定其为一株马杜拉属放线菌。通过测定菌株HY286发酵产物的抗耻垢分枝杆菌MIC值、抗菌活性和细胞毒活性。结果表明,该菌株产生化合物的抗耻垢分枝杆菌MIC值为200μg/m L,具有较好的抗结核分枝杆菌的潜力,且对枯草芽孢杆菌、短小芽孢杆菌也具有较好的抑制作用,对He La和Hep G2的抑制率分别为89.3%和94.2%。     

耻垢分枝杆菌的蚯蚓血红蛋白样蛋白MSMEG_3312影响其大环内酯类药物的敏感性

【目的】活性氧类分子是机体有氧代谢的自然产物,可以引起氧化损伤,导致细胞DNA突变、蛋白质失活,是细菌耐药产生的原因之一。蚯蚓血红蛋白家族是能携带氧、可逆地结合氧的一类蛋白,在氧代谢过程中发挥重要作用,与活性氧类分子介导的细菌耐药相关。预测耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis)MSMEG_3312是蚯蚓血红蛋白样蛋白,其功能可能与细菌抗药性有关。【方法】通过生物信息学预测耻垢分枝杆菌MSMEG_3312的结构特征。通过基因敲除、遗传互补和抗药性分析以及启动子表达测定等方法研究MSMEG_3312与耻垢分枝杆菌抗药的相关性。【结果】与野生菌株mc2155相比,msmeg_3312敲除菌株表现为抗大环内酯类抗生素,而且回补msmeg_3312部分丧失了这种耐药表型。此外,大环内酯类抗生素的胁迫在统计上显著下调msmeg_3312启动子的表达。另外,对作用于核糖体的其他药物,敲除菌株和野生菌株没有抗药性差异。【结论】生物信息学分析显示MSMEG_3312的氨基酸序列具有典型的蚯蚓血红蛋白保守的HHE结构域,预测其二级结构含有4个α-螺旋组成的典型蚯蚓血红蛋白结构。MSMEG_3312与耻垢分枝杆菌对大环内酯类抗生素的药物敏感性相关,其可能通过影响药物与核糖体50S亚基的作用来发挥功能。     

结核分枝杆菌蛋白Rv3425对细菌表型及毒力影响的研究

为探索蛋白Rv3425在结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis,M. tuberculosis)中的功能,本研究以耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis,M. smegmatis)为模式菌株,构建重组了耻垢分枝杆菌Ms-Rv3425。分别将构建菌株(Ms-Rv3425)、野生株(Ms)及空载对照(Ms-Pact)接种于7H9-OADC培养基中37 ℃培养,观察Ms-Rv3425与Ms及Ms-Pact之间在生长速率、菌落形态、生物膜以及聚集度方面的差异。分别用低pH值以及含有十二烷基磺酸钠(sodium dodecyl sulfate,SDS)、氨苄西林、异烟肼及利福平的培养基进行培养,计算存活率以分析抗逆和抗药能力;用上述压力条件培养结核分枝杆菌标准株H37Ra,分析Rv3425内源表达量的变化;进行THP-1细胞感染和BALB/c小鼠攻毒实验分析菌株的毒性变化。结果显示,与Ms及Ms-Pact相比,Ms-Rv3425的菌落形态更为粗糙且隆起,成膜及聚集能力增强;在压力条件下,Ms-Rv3425表现出更高的抗逆和抗药能力,H37Ra中Rv3425的表达量也显著上调;胞内存活率及小鼠致死率更高,各脏器病理损伤更为严重。综上所述,过表达Rv3425能够改变耻垢分枝杆菌的表型,提高抗逆性、抗药性和毒力。深入探讨PPE家族蛋白Rv3425的功能,将为结核病的防治带来新的视角。     

构建CRISPR-Cas9介导的耻垢分枝杆菌基因组高效删除系统

【背景】耻垢分枝杆菌具有生长迅速和非致病性的特点,可作为结核分枝杆菌致病机理研究替代菌株和类固醇激素生产的工程菌,但目前耻垢分枝杆菌中缺乏高效率的基因组敲除方法。【目的】基于CRISPR-Cas9介导的定点、高效的DNA切割能力,构建耻垢分枝杆菌染色体DNA片段无痕敲除系统。【方法】构建了包含四环素诱导型启动子驱动的密码子优化的cas9基础载体pCas9101,在双侧同源臂长度约为1 kb条件下选用合适的gRNA表达模块,分别测试了对耻垢分枝杆菌mc2155染色体上的3β-羟基类固醇脱氢酶基因(MSMEG_5228,1 071 bp)和胆固醇降解基因簇(MSMEG_5990-MSMEG_6043,约48kb)敲除效率,使用相同大小的同源臂以经典p2NIL-pGOAL方法进行对照,并计算效率。【结果】使用CRISPR-Cas9方法对耻垢分枝杆菌mc2155的3β-羟基类固醇脱氢酶基因敲除效率为22%,胆固醇降解基因簇敲除效率也达到18%,两者连续敲除效率为4%。但对照p2NIL-pGOAL方法未能获得目标DNA片段敲除的菌株。【结论】本文建立的基于CRISPR-Cas9的耻垢分枝杆菌基因组无痕敲除系统显示出较高的敲除效率,该方法可为耻垢分枝杆菌后续研究提供快速高效的基因组操作方法。     

异烟肼影响重组耻垢分支杆菌Rv1776c基因表达的实验研究

目的 研究经典抗结核药物异烟肼对重组耻垢分支杆菌生长增殖及其Rv1776c基因表达的影响。方法 将重组菌MS-Rv1776c接种于LB培养基培养作为对照组,实验组给予异烟肼药物处理,不同时间点取菌液测量A600值,根据所测A值绘制增殖曲线;提取菌液DNA以RT-PCR方法检测异烟肼对Rv1776c基因表达的影响;免疫印迹法SDS-PAGE及Western blot检测异烟肼对Rv1776c蛋白表达的影响。结果 异烟肼对两组重组耻垢分枝杆菌增殖无显著影响（P>0.05）;异烟肼可抑制Rv1776c基因的表达（P<0.05）;SDS-PAGE及Western blot检测发现异烟肼可显著降低ERv1776c蛋白的表达（P<0.05）。结论 异烟肼对重组耻垢分支杆菌的增殖无影响,但可抑制结核分枝杆菌Rv1776c基因及其表达的蛋白。该结果对研究结核菌从休眠菌到复苏初期及活跃期的药物预防提供了实验依据。     

结核分枝杆菌脂蛋白Rv1016c增强细菌成膜能力和抑制自噬

目的研究结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb)脂蛋白Rv1016c在Mtb感染和结核病发病中的作用和机制。方法将Mtb脂蛋白Rv1016c基因导入野生耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis, MS)构建重组菌株MS-Rv1016c,比较脂蛋白Rv1016c对菌体生长、成膜能力、细菌聚集、毒力等方面的影响,评估重组菌株MS-Rv1016c对自噬的影响。结果 Rv1016c基因的导入,因过表达脂蛋白使得MS的菌落变大、褶皱增加,使菌体聚集度降低,使细菌成膜速度加快、生物被膜产量增加;Rv1016c显著抑制巨噬细胞自噬,促进细菌在细胞内持留。结论 Rv1016c能够促进MS生物被膜形成,抑制细胞自噬,增强细菌毒力。为研究脂蛋白在Mtb致病机理中的作用提供理论依据。     

结核病疫苗和耻垢分枝杆菌引起树突状细胞差异免疫反应的蛋白质组学分析

研究结核分枝杆菌和免疫细胞的相互作用对发展新的结核病防治策略至关重要.由于结核分枝杆菌生长缓慢,且需要在高等级生物安全实验室中进行操作,快速生长非致病的耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis)经常用来作为结核分枝杆菌的模式菌开展相关研究.为了探讨耻垢分枝杆菌和结核分枝杆菌对免疫系统产生的不同影响,本课题组利用缓慢生长的结核菌的减毒活疫苗卡介苗(BCG)和耻垢分枝杆菌mc2155分别感染小鼠(Mus musculus)树突状细胞DC2.4细胞,通过蛋白质组学分析,阐述宿主细胞对BCG和耻垢分枝杆菌不同的免疫反应.结果表明,BCG在DC2.4中生存时间比耻垢分枝杆菌长.定量蛋白质组学发现耻垢分枝杆菌激活了Ⅰ型干扰素信号通路,上调了AIM2,IFI204,IFIT1和ISG15蛋白的表达.相反,BCG的侵染对宿主细胞的蛋白组影响不大.分泌组学的结果显示,耻垢分枝杆菌的侵染诱导树突状细胞分泌更多的细胞趋化因子以及ISG15,TNF和IL-6等细胞因子,说明耻垢分枝杆菌的侵染促进了宿主细胞的细胞因子和趋化因子的释放,从而迅速地清除侵染的细菌.与此一致的是,耻垢分枝杆菌侵染的小鼠原代免疫细胞比BCG侵染产生更多的IFN-γ.进一步的研究发现,ISG15过表达阻止分枝杆菌进入宿主细胞.综上所述,本研究证明与缓慢生长的BCG相比,耻垢分枝杆菌引起宿主细胞更强烈的免疫反应,致使耻垢分枝杆菌在宿主细胞中被迅速清除.同时,本研究组发现耻垢分枝杆菌侵染引起的ISG15上调阻止了分枝杆菌进入宿主细胞.     

巨噬细胞冠蛋白-1 siRNA对小鼠巨噬细胞吞噬功能的影响

巨噬细胞冠蛋白-1(Coronin-1)与结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis,Mtb)逃逸免疫杀伤有关。该研究探讨了p S-EGFP-SP-Coronin-1si RNA重组质粒靶向抑制巨噬细胞Coronin-1表达后对小鼠巨噬细胞吞噬功能的影响。用该质粒转染小鼠巨噬细胞系RAW264.7,采用RT-PCR法和Western blot检测质粒转染前后细胞Coronin-1的表达水平。以耻垢分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium smegmatis)分别感染转染质粒组细胞和对照组细胞,通过细胞内细菌菌落计数和细胞爬片抗酸染色法评估巨噬细胞转染质粒前后对细菌的吞噬能力;利用流式细胞术检测转染质粒组细胞及对照组细胞吞噬耻垢分枝杆菌后不同时段的细胞凋亡水平。结果显示,该质粒能显著抑制RAW264.7细胞Coronin-1的m RNA水平及蛋白表达水平;感染耻垢分枝杆菌6 h后,转染质粒组细胞内细菌数显著高于对照组细胞(P0.05);感染耻垢分枝杆菌48 h后,转染质粒组细胞凋亡水平显著高于对照组细胞(P0.05)。以上结果表明,p S-EGFP-SP-Coronin-1si RNA重组质粒能显著抑制巨噬细胞Coronin-1的表达,并可显著促进巨噬细胞吞噬细菌和凋亡杀菌,为开发靶向巨噬细胞Coronin-1的抗结核基因治疗措施奠定基础。     

Identification and localisation of a nucleoporin-like protein component of the plant nuclear matrix

Salt-detergent extraction of purified plant nuclei yields a fraction enriched in putative structural proteins known as the nuclear matrix. Compared with mammalian nuclear matrices, which contain three major proteins, plant nuclear matrices are complex, containing at least 100 polypeptides. In order to characterise more fully the plant nuclear matrix we have used antibodies raised against both yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mammalian (rat) nuclear pore proteins. We have shown that the nuclear matrix of carrot (Daucus carota L.) contains at least one nucleoporin-like protein of about 100 kDa which is immunologically related to both the yeast nuclear pore protein NSP1 and mammalian nucleoporins (p62). Antibody labelling of a variety of plant cells at the light-microscope and electron-microscope levels confirms that this antigen is located at the nuclear pores. This, to our knowledge, is the first identification of a nuclear pore protein in plants.Abbreviations IgG immunoglobulin G - kDa kilodaltons - DAPI 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole - FITC fluorescein isothioganate The authors would like to thank Dr. E. Hurt (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, FRG) for antibodies against yeast nucleoporins, and Dr. L. Davis (Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Mass., USA) for the monoclonal antibodies MAb 414 & 350. We thank Brian Wells for useful advice on electron microscopy. We also thank Peter Scott, Andrew Davis, and Nigel Hannant for photography, and Sue Bunnewell for development and printing of electronmicrographs.     

ent-Kaurene biosynthesis in a cell-free system from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings and the localisation of ent-kaurene synthetase in plastids of three species

A cell-free system capable of converting [¹⁴C]geranylgeranyl diphosphate to ent-[¹⁴C]kaurene and to an unidentified acid-hydrolysable compound was obtained from the basal portions of 5-d-old shoots of wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L.). By means of marker enzyme activities, the synthesis of ent-kaurene and the unknown compound could be quantitatively assigned to a plastid fraction obtained by Percoll-gradient centrifugation of the homogenate. The enzyme activities were located within the plastids, probably in the stroma, because they withstood trypsin treatment of the intact plastids, and the plastids had to be broken to release the activity, which was then obtained in soluble form. Plastid membranes had no activity. Plastid stroma preparations obtained from pea (Pisum sativum L.) shoot tips and pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima L.) endosperm also yielded ent-kaurene synthetase activity, but did not form the unknown compound. The exact nature of the active plastids was not ascertained, but the use of methods for proplastid isolation was essential for full activity, and the active tissues are all known to contain high proportions of proplastids, developing chloroplasts or leucoplasts. We therefore believe that ent-kaurene synthesis may be limited to these categories. Mature chloroplasts from the wheat leaves did not contain ent-kaurene synthetase activity and did not yield the unknown component. Incorporation of [¹⁴C]geranylgeranyl diphosphate into ent-[¹⁴C]kaurene and the unknown component was assayed by high-performance liquid chromatography with on-line radiocounting. ent-[¹⁴C]Kaurene was identified by Kovats retention index and full mass spectra obtained by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The unknown component was first believed to be copalyl diphosphate, because it yielded a compound on acid hydrolysis, which migrated like copalol on high-performance liquid chromatography and gave a mass spectrum very similar to that of authentic copalol. However, differences in the mass spectrum and in retention time on capillary gas chromatography excluded identity with copalol. Furthermore, the unhydrolysed compound was not converted to ent-kaurene by a cell-free system from C. maxima endosperm as copalyl diphosphate would have been.Abbreviations ADH alcohol dehydrogenase - AMO 1618 2isopropyl-4-(trimethylammoniumchloride)-5-methylphenyl piperi-dine-1-carboxylate - BSA bovine serum albumin - DTT dithioth-reitol - GA_n gibberellin A_n - GAPDH NADP⁺-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase - GC-MS combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry - GGPP all trans-isomer of geranyl-geranyl diphosphate - KS ent-kaurene synthetase - MDH malate dehydrogenase - MAA mevalonate activating activity - SOR shikimate oxidoreductase We thank Mrs. Gudrun Bodtke and Mrs. Dorothee Dasbach for able technical assistance, Prof. L.N. Mander (Australian National University, Canberra, Australia) for ent-[²H₂]kaurene and Dr. Yuji Kamiya (RIKEN, Saitama, Japan) for geranylgeraniol and copalol. The work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.     

Identification and localization of gibberellins in maturing seeds of the cucurbit Sechium edule,and a comparison between this cucurbit and the legume Phaseolus coccineus

Twenty known gibberellins (GAs) have been identified by combined capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in extracts from less than 10 g fresh weight of maturing seeds of the cucurbit Sechium edule Sw. The GAs are predominantly 3- and-or 13-hydroxylated. This is the first reported identification of non-conjugated 13-hydroxylated GAs in a cucurbit. Gibberellin A₈ and gibberellin A₈-catabolite are the major GAs in terms of quantity and are largely accumulated in the testa. The catabolites of 2-hydroxylated GAs are ,-unsaturated ketones which no longer possess of a -lactone. They were hitherto known only in legumes. The presence of GA₈-catabolite as a major component of Sechium seeds indicates that the distribution of these GA-catabolites may be more widespread than previously envisaged. The localization of known GAs in maturing seeds of the legume Phaseolus coccineus L. was found to resemble closely that in Sechium. Gibberellin A₈, a putative conjugate of GA₈ and GA₈-catabolite are accumulated in the testa. The localization in the testa of end-products of the GA-biosynthetic pathway, which was first observed in maturing seeds of Pisum sativum, and is now described in Phaseolus and Sechium, may be a general feature of seed development.Abbreviations GA_n gibberellin A_n - GC-MS combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry     

The effect of chemical stress on the polypeptide composition of the intercellular fluid of barley leaves

The effect of chemical stress on the polypeptide composition of the intercellular fluid of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) leaves has been studied. In some dicotyledonous plant species, including tomato, exposure to chemical stress leads to the denovo synthesis of intercellular proteins known as pathogenesis-related proteins which have been implicated to be part of a defence mechanism. In barley, however, no such changes in the polypeptide composition of the intercellular fluid could be detected. On the other hand, similar stress conditions induce in barley a strong accumulation of mRNA encoding leaf-specific thionins. These barley thionins represent a novel class of cell-wall proteins toxic to phytopathogenic fungi and are possibly involved in the defence mechanism. These proteins could not be detected in tomato plants. In contrast to the pathogenesis-related proteins of dicotyledonous plants, the leaf-specific thionins of barley are not present in the intercellular fluid of leaves. These results indicate that barley may have evolved a different mechanism to cope with the presence of stress.Abbreviations PAGE polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis - PR pathogenesis-related - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate     

Detection of lectins in nodulated peanut and soybean plants

The direct double-antibody enzymelinked immunosorbent assay system was used in the detection and measurement of seed lectins from peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and soybean (Glycine max L.) plants (PSL and SBL, respectively) that had been inoculated with their respective rhizobia. Concentrations of PSL dropped to undetectable levels in peanut roots at 9 d and stems and leaves at 27 d after planting; SBL could no longer be detected in soybean roots at 9 d and in stems and leaves at 12 d. A lectin antigenically similar to PSL was first detected in root nodules of peanuts at 21 d reaching a maximum of 8 g/g at 29 d then decreasing to 2.5 g/g at 60 d. There was no evidence of a corresponding lectin in soybean nodules.Sugar haemagglutination inhibition tests with neuraminidase-treated human blood cells established that PSL and the peanut nodule lectin were both galactose/lactose-specific. Further tests with rabbit blood cells demonstrated a second mannosespecific lectin in peanut nodule extracts that was not detected in root extracts of four-week-old inoculated plants or six-week-old uninoculated plants, although six-week-old root extracts from inoculated plants showed weak lectin activity. The root extracts from both nodulated and uninoculated plants contained another peanut lectin that agglutinated rabbit but not human blood cells. Haemagglutination by this lectin was, however, not inhibited by simple sugars but a glycoprotein, asialothyroglobulin, was effective in this respect.Abbreviations DAS double antibody sandwich - ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - PSL peanut seed lectin - SBL soybean lectin     

Studies on the evolution of auxin carriers and phytotropin receptors: Transmembrane auxin transport in unicellular and multicellular Chlorophyta

The characteristics of transmembrane transport of ¹⁴C-labelled indol-3yl-acetic acid ([1-¹⁴C]IAA) were compared in Chlorella vulgaris Beij., a simple unicellular green alga, and in Chara vulgaris L., a branched, multicellular green alga exhibiting axial polarity and a high degree of cell and organ specialization. In Chara thallus cells, three distinguishable trans-plasmamembrane fluxes contributed to the net uptake of [1-¹⁴C]-IAA from an external solution, viz.: a non-mediated, pH-sensitive influx of undissociated IAA (IAAH); a saturable influx of IAA; and a saturable efflux of IAA. Both saturable fluxes were competitively inhibited by unlabelled IAA. Association of [³H]IAA with microsomal preparations from Chara thallus tissue was competitively inhibited by unlabelled IAA. Results indicated that up-take carriers occurred in the membranes at a much higher density than efflux carriers. The efflux component of IAA net uptake by Chara was not affected by several phytotropins (N-1-naphthylphthalmic acid, NPA; 2-(1-pyrenoyl)benzoic acid; and 5-(2-carboxyphenyl)-3-phenylpyrazole), which are potent non-competitive inhibitors of specific auxin-efflux carriers in more advanced plant groups, and no evidence was found for a specific association of [³H]NPA with Chara microsomal preparations. It was concluded that Chara lacked phytotropin receptors. Net uptake of [1-¹⁴C]IAA also was unaffected by 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid except at concentrations ( 10^–1 mol · m^–3) high enough to depress cytoplasmic pH (determined by uptake of 5,5-dimethyloxazolidine-2,4-dione). Chlorella cells accumulated [1-¹⁴C]IAA from an external solution by pH-sensitive diffusion of IAA across the plasma membrane and anion (IAA^–) trapping, but no evidence was found in Chlorella for the occurrence of IAA carriers. These results indicate that carrier systems capable of mediating the transmembrane transport of auxins appeared at a very early stage in the evolution of green plants, possibly in association with the origin of a differentiated, multicellular plant body. Phytotropin receptors evolved independently of the carriers.Abbreviations CPP 5-(2-carboxyphenyl)-3-phenylpyrazole - DMO 5,5-dimethyloxazolidine-2,4-dione - IAA indol-3yl-acetic acid - NPA N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid - PBA 2-(1-pyrenoyl)benzoic acid - TIBA 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid We thank the Nuffield Foundation for the award of an Undergraduate Research Bursary to J.E.D.-F., Dr. G.F. Katekar, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, Australia for generous gifts of phytotropins, and Mrs. R.P. Bell for technical support.     

The measurement of ethylene binding and metabolism in plant tissue

Methods are described for the rigorous measurement of C₂H₄ metabolism and C₂H₄ binding in plant tissue. Comparisons are drawn between the results obtained using other methods and those which emerge from our studies, indicating that significant misapprehensions may have arisen in relation both to the distribution of metabolism and binding.     

The role of the apex in the phototropic curvature of Avena coleoptiles: positive curvature under conditions of continuous illumination

The differential growth causing second positive phototropic curvature in intact, black-capped and decapitated Avena coleoptiles has been measured. In all cases the curvature is brought about by a cessation in growth of the illuminated side. The fact that shading the apex does not significantly alter the initial steps of differential growth means that the subapical zones can perceive and respond to unilateral illumination. Decapitation significantly reduces coleoptile growth, especially in the most apical zone. However, the fact that differential growth is still evident in the other zones of decapitated coleoptiles within 30 min of unilateral illumination requires one to conclude that the apex cannot be controlling the differential growth in those basal zones.     

Differences in properties of peanut seed lectin and purified galactose- and mannose-binding lectins from nodules of peanut

Two lectins were purified by affinity chromatography from mature peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) nodules, and compared with the previously characterised seed lectin of this plant. One of the nodule lectins was similar to the seed lectin in its molecular weight and amino-acid composition and ability to bind derivatives of galactose. However, unlike the seed lectin, this nodule lectin appeared to be a glycoprotein and the two lectins were only partially identical in their reaction with antibodies prepared against the seed lectin. The other nodule lectin also appeared to be a glycoprotein but bound mannose/glucose-like sugar derivatives, and differed from the seed lectin in molecular weight, antigenic properties and amino-acid composition.Abbreviations Gal galactose - Gle glucose - GNL galactose-binding nodule lectin - Fru fructose - MNL mannosebinding nodule lectin - M _r rerative molecular mass - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - PSL peanut seed lectin - SDS sodium dodecyl sulphate - Sorb sorbitol     

Changes in the content of modified nucleotides of total transfer RNA of wheat seedlings during greening

The contents in minor nucleotides of total transfer RNA (tRNA) of etiolated and light-grown wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings and of seedlings illuminated for 24 or 48 h were examined. The total tRNA of seedlings illuminated 24 h contained more, and that from seedlings illuminated 48 h still more modified nucleotides than that from etiolated ones. Thus, the appearance of the characteristic minor nucleotides of tRNA of light-grown wheat seedlings needs a rather long greening period, of at least 48 h.