Rheological Characterization and Drug Release Studies of Gum Exudates of Terminalia catappa Linn

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the gum exudates of Terminalia catappa Linn. (TC gum) as a release retarding excipient in oral controlled drug delivery system. The rheological properties of TC gum were studied and different formulation techniques were used to evaluate the comparative drug release characteristics. The viscosity was found to be dependent on concentration and pH. Temperature up to 60°C did not show significant effect on viscosity. The rheological kinetics evaluated by power law, revealed the shear thinning behavior of the TC gum dispersion in water. Matrix tablets of TC gum were prepared with the model drug dextromethorphan hydrobromide (DH) by direct compression, wet granulation and solid dispersion techniques. The dissolution profiles of the matrix tablets were compared with the pure drug containing capsules using the USP Basket apparatus with 500 ml phosphate buffer of pH 6.8 as a dissolution medium. The drug release from the compressed tablets containing TC gum was comparatively sustained than pure drug containing capsules. Even though all the formulation techniques showed reduction of dissolution rate, aqueous wet granulation showed the maximum sustained release of more than 8 h. The release kinetics estimated by the power law revealed that the drug release mechanism involved in the dextromethorphan matrix is anomalous transport as indicated by the release exponent n values. Thus the study confirmed that the TC gum might be used in the controlled drug delivery system as a release-retarding polymer.     

木麻黄浸提液对榄仁树幼苗生长及生理生化的影响

该研究试图将榄仁树引入木麻黄海防林以期形成混交林型的海防林。以15 d榄仁树种子苗为材料,分别采用浓度为125 g·L~-1的木麻黄根、木麻黄凋落物和林下表层土壤的水浸提液胁迫处理榄仁树幼苗60 d,研究木麻黄化感作用对榄仁树幼苗生长、光合作用、膜系统伤害、抗氧化系统酶活性及游离Pro含量的影响。结果表明:木麻黄根、木麻黄凋落物及林下表层土壤的水浸提液都能降低榄仁树幼苗的存活率,影响幼苗株高、叶和根生物量,可以推断不同浸提液中对影响植物生长成分的浓度有所不同。3种浸提液均显著降低处理15~45 d期间幼苗的净光合速率(Pn)、气孔导度(Ccond)、胞间CO_2浓度(Ci)、蒸腾速率(Tr),且显著增加幼苗水分利用率(WUE)。第60天时3种木麻黄浸提液能显著增加幼苗叶片、根的Pro含量,使得幼苗根系组织细胞膜通透性增加,而木麻黄根浸提液能显著增加幼苗Ccond、Ci、叶SOD、根CAT含量,木麻黄凋落物浸提液能显著增加幼苗Ccond和Tr,同时凋落物浸提液会显著降低幼苗根POD含量。榄仁树幼苗通过调整自身的生理生化能适应木麻黄化感胁迫的影响,为此可考虑榄仁树作为沿海防护林建设的树种之一。     

榄仁树的生态分布与耐盐性研究

调查了榄仁树(Terminalia catappa)在海南岛沿海地区的分布情况,并就基质盐度对温室中人工培育的榄仁幼苗的影响进行研究。结果表明,榄仁具有较强的耐盐能力,在盐度高达17.09‰条件下仍可正常生长,温室里幼苗可在10‰左右的盐度下存活。结果还表明,10‰盐度能增加幼苗叶片叶绿素含量,20‰~30‰则下降;盐胁迫下叶片光合速率呈下降趋势,而叶片可溶性糖含量则随盐度增加呈上升趋势。     

Phenolic content of Terminalia catappa L. leaf and toxicity evaluation on red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis sp.)

Despite the use of Terminalia catappa (TC) leaf by traditional fish farmers around the world to improve the health status of cultured fish, there is a paucity of information on comprehensive metabolite profile and the maximum safe dose of the plant. This study aims at profiling the methanol leaf extract of T. catappa, quantifying total phenolic content (TPC) as well as the total flavonoid content (TFC) and evaluating its acute toxicity on blood, plasma biochemical parameters and histopathology of some vital organs in red hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis sp.). The experimental fish were acclimatised for 2 weeks and divided into six groups. Group (1) served as a control group and was administered 0.2 ml,g⁻¹ of phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Groups 2–6 were orally administered T. catappa leaf extracts (0.2 ml.50 g⁻¹) in the following sequence; 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250 and 500 mg.kg⁻¹ body weight. The metabolites identified in T. catappa using liquid chromatography-tandem mass electrospray ionisation spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) revealed the presence of organic acids, hydrolysable tannins, phenolic acids and flavonoids. Phenolic quantification revealed reasonable quantity of phenolic compounds (217.48 μg GAEmg⁻¹ for TPC and 91.90 μg. QCEmg⁻¹ for TFC). Furthermore, there was no significant difference in all the tested doses in terms of blood parameters and plasma biochemical analysis except for the packed cell volume (PCV) at 500 mg.kg⁻¹ when compared to the control. Significant histopathological changes were observed in groups administered with the extract at 125, 250 and 500 mg.kg⁻¹ doses. To a very large extent it is therefore safe to administer the extract at 31.25 and 62.5 mg.kg⁻¹ in tilapia.     

榄仁树的生理和生物学特性

为了解榄仁树(Terminalia catappa)的生理生态特性,对西沙群岛永兴岛上自然生长的榄仁树的叶片形态、生理特征、营养元素含量以及根际土壤特征进行了研究。结果表明,榄仁树具有比叶面积低、叶片厚、气孔密度小等形态特征。叶绿素a/b为2.25∶1,低于理论值3∶1。叶片的SOD和POD活性较低,脯氨酸和ABA含量较高。植物体内养分含量较高,适生土壤养分含量低。这说明榄仁树叶片的吸收利用光能能力较强,保水能力较好,有较强的抗干旱和抗逆能力,适生于贫瘠的土壤并保持较高的叶片营养。因此,榄仁树是一种能够适应高温、干旱、贫瘠等恶劣生境条件的树种,可作为热带珊瑚岛植被恢复的工具种和园林绿化树种。     

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective actions of medicinal herb, Terminalia catappa L. from Okinawa Island and its tannin corilagin

The antioxidant and hepatoprotective actions of Terminalia catappa L. collected from Okinawa Island were evaluated in vitro and in vivo using leaves extract and isolated antioxidants. A water extract of the leaves of T. catappa showed a strong radical scavenging action for 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and superoxide (O(2)(.-)) anion. Chebulagic acid and corilagin were isolated as the active components from T. catappa. Both antioxidants showed a strong scavenging action for O(2)(.-) and peroxyl radicals and also inhibited reactive oxygen species production from leukocytes stimulated by phorbol-12-myristate acetate. Galactosamine (GalN, 600 mg/kg, s.c.,) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.5 microg/kg, i.p.)-induced hepatotoxicity of rats as seen by an elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities was significantly reduced when the herb extract or corilagin was given intraperitoneally to rats prior to GalN/LPS treatment. Increase of free radical formation and lipid peroxidation in mitochondria caused by GalN/LPS treatment were also decreased by pretreatment with the herb/corilagin. In addition, apoptotic events such as DNA fragmentation and the increase in caspase-3 activity in the liver observed with GalN/LPS treatment were prevented by the pretreatment with the herb/corilagin. These results show that the extract of T. catappa and its antioxidant, corilagin are protective against GalN/LPS-induced liver injury through suppression of oxidative stress and apoptosis.     

Terminalia arjuna a sacred medicinal plant: phytochemical and pharmacological profile

Terminalia arjuna Wight & Arn. (Combretaceae) is a tree having an extensive medicinal potential. The plant is used traditionally in the treatment of various aliments. T. arjuna is a very good hypocholsteremic, hypolipidemic, anticoagulant, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, antiviral, antifungal and antibacterial agent Various parts of plant have been investigated for the presence of phytoconstituents and pharmacological activities. Many useful phytoconstituents have been isolated from T. arjuna. Triterpenoids are mainly responsible for cardiovascular properties. Tannins and flavonoids are responsible for its anticancer properties. The present review summarizes the ethnic use, pharmacological activities of the extracts and phytoconstituents of T. arjuna for last 90 years.     

美人树、紫檀和小叶榄仁的引种与栽培

美人树、紫檀和小叶榄仁是福建沿海地区近年来新引进的园林绿化树种,本文介绍其形态特征、生物学特性及引种栽培状况。引种栽培结果表明,三种植物性状表现良好,适于在福建沿海作为庭园景观树种和道路遮荫树种。     

Phytotherapeutic efficacy of the medicinal plant Terminalia catappa L.

Diabetes is a chronic, lifelong condition due to inadequate production of insulin or the cells does not properly respond it. Recently, the significance and effectiveness of herbal drugs associated with diabetes has emerged. The aim of the present study was to determine the anti-diabetic effects of Terminalia catappa L. leaves on streptozotocin (STZ)-treated rats. Two different concentrations of ethanolic leaf extract (300 and 500 mg/kg) of T. catappa were used to treat diabetic rats, and biochemical parameters were analyzed in blood samples. The results of herbal treatments were compared with the standard drug, glibenclamide. The ethanol extract (500 mg/kg) had significant anti-diabetic activity by altering blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, liver glycogen, glucose 6-phosphatase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, glucokinase, aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, urea, uric acid and creatinine levels while increasing insulin levels. Thus, the present study suggests that the supplementation of the diabetic patients with T. catappa leaves can lead to recovery from diabetic effects.     

Endophytic Fungal Assemblages from Inner Bark and Twig of Terminalia arjuna W. & A. (Combretaceae)

Summary Fungal endophytes reside in healthy tissues of all terrestrial plant taxa studied to date and are diverse and abundant in tropical woody angiosperms. Endophytic fungi were isolated from Terminalia arjuna, an important ethno pharmacological plant extensively used in ayurvedic medicines to treat heart ailments. Isolations were made from symptomless fresh inner bark as well as twig samples of five plants collected from three locations of riparian vegetation during two seasons (monsoon and winter) of 2003 and 2004. Two hundred and seventy eight isolates, representing 22 genera, were obtained from both seasons. Monsoon seasonal isolations representing 22 genera showed greater diversity. Coelomycetes were more numerous during the winter season than hyphomycetes and ascomycetes. Among the endophytes, the genus Pestalotiopsis dominated the endophyte assemblage of T. arjuna collected from different locations, dominance was greater during the winter season than the monsoon season. Endophytic colonization frequency was greater in inner bark (18.5%) than twigs (4.6%). The genera Pestalotiopsis (54.5%), Chaetomium (10.5%) and Myrothecium (9%) were the most predominant endophytes. Rarefaction indices indicated the highest expected number of species for bark samples, monsoon isolations and location 1 (Mysore).     

Studies of Terminalia catappa L. oil: characterization and biodiesel production

Since the biodiesel program has been started in Brazil, the investigation of alternative sources of triacylglycerides from species adapted at semi-arid lands became a very important task for Brazilian researchers. Thus we initiated studies with the fruits of the Terminalia catappa L (TC), popularly known in Brazil as "castanhola", evaluating selected properties and chemical composition of the oil, as well any potential application in biodiesel production. The oil was obtained from the kernels of the fruit, with yields around 49% (% mass). Also, its fatty acid composition was quite similar to that of conventional oils. The crude oil of the TC was transesterified, using a conventional catalyst and methanol to form biodiesel. The studied physicochemical properties of the TC biodiesel are in acceptable range for use as biodiesel in diesel engines.     

Outcrossing rates and their relationship to phenology in Triticum dicoccoides

Summary Outcrossing rates (t) were estimated in natural and garden populations of wild emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccoides. The estimated t from the natural populations was 0 with the 0.95 upper confidence limit ranging from 0.102 to 0.925 depending on the genetic variation within the population. Outcrossing rates for two genotype classes of this species grown in a common garden were 0.0077 and 0.0018. The difference in Outcrossing rates between the two genotypes is ascribed to phenological differences and hence different available pollen pools. Phenological displacement is discussed as a possible bias in the estimation of outcrossing rates in both predominantly selfing and outcrossing plants.     

干旱胁迫和化感作用对榄仁树幼苗生长、光合作用及生理生化的影响

该研究通过榄仁树幼苗的盆栽实验,用称重控水法设置3个水平的土壤水分含量(分别占田间持水量的75％~80％、50％~55％、30％~35％)和2个浓度水平的木麻黄凋落物浸提液,研究不同土壤干旱程度及不同浓度木麻黄凋落物浸提液对榄仁树生长、光合作用及生理生化的影响。结果表明：随着幼苗生长期的延长,土壤干旱和木麻黄凋落物浸提液对榄仁树幼苗存活率和株高增长有一定影响。60 d胁迫后显著减小了幼苗叶片数、叶面积、叶片含水量及叶片的生物量。15~60 d期间幼苗的净光合速率( Pn)、气孔导度( Ccond)、蒸腾速率( Tr)均显著减小,而幼苗叶片胞间CO2浓度( Ci)呈先减后增的变化。幼苗的水分利用率( WUE)和气孔限制值( Ls)显著增加,是导致光合作用降低的主要原因。干旱和木麻黄凋落物浸提液能显著增加榄仁树幼苗的叶片和根的细胞膜透性、Peroxidase(POD)活性及叶片Superoxide dismutase(SOD)活性。二元方差分析表明,土壤干旱和木麻黄凋落物浸提液对榄仁树的生长、光合作用及生理生化的影响有明显的交互作用且表现出一定的拮抗作用。该研究结果可为构建混交林型海防林提供参考。     

Effect of Terminalia arjuna on antioxidant defense system in cancer

Constant production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during aerobic metabolism is balanced by antioxidant defense system of an organism. Although low level of ROS is important for various physiological functions, its accumulation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of age-related diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. It is generally assumed that frequent consumption of phytochemicals derived from vegetables, fruits, tea and herbs may contribute to shift the balance towards an adequate antioxidant status. The present study is aimed to investigate the effect of aqueous extract of medicinal plant Terminalia arjuna on antioxidant defense system in lymphoma bearing AKR mice. Antioxidant action of T. arjuna is monitored by the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S transferase which constitute major antioxidant defense system by scavenging ROS. These enzyme activities are low in lymphoma bearing mice indicating impaired antioxidant defense system. Oral administration of different doses of aqueous extract of T. arjuna causes significant elevation in the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione S transferase. T. arjuna is found to down regulate anaerobic metabolism by inhibiting the activity of lactate dehydrogenase in lymphoma bearing mice, which was elevated in untreated cancerous mice. The results indicate the antioxidant action of aqueous extract of T. arjuna, which may play a role in the anti carcinogenic activity by reducing the oxidative stress along with inhibition of anaerobic metabolism.     

Additions to the genusXenidiocercus (coelomycetes) from Ghana

Two new species of the coelomycete genusXenidiocercus are described and illustrated,X. macrospora on leaves ofMacaranga rowlandii andX. pyriformis on leaves ofM. huraefolia. They differ from the type species in having wider and ellipsoidal or pyriform conidia. A key to species ofXenidiocercus andIdiocercus is provided.     

Radiation protection by Terminalia chebula: Some mechanistic aspects

Radioprotective ability of the aqueous extract of the fruit of Terminalia chebula (TCE) was evaluated for its antioxidant and radioprotective abilities. TCE (50 μg) was able to neutralise 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, a stable free radical by 92.9%. The free radical neutralizing ability of TCE was comparable to that of ascorbate (100 μM) 93.5% and gallic acid (100 μM) 91.5% and was higher than that of the diethyldithiocarbamate (200 μM) 55.4%, suggesting the free radical activity of TCE. TCE protected the plasmid DNA pBR322 from undergoing the radiation-induced strand breaks. Radiation damage converts the supercoiled form (ccc) of plasmid to open circular form (oc); the presence of TCE during radiation exposure protected the plasmid from undergoing these damages. The administration of TCE (80 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) prior to whole body irradiation of mice (4 Gy) resulted in a reduction of peroxidation of membrane lipids in the mice liver as well as a decrease in radiation-induced damage to DNA, as assayed by single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay). TCE also protected the human lymphocytes from undergoing the gamma radiation-induced damage to DNA exposed in vitro to 2 Gy gamma-radiation. These results suggest the radioprotective ability of TCE.     

Density-dependent flowering phenology,outcrossing, and reproduction in Impatiens capensis

Summary We investigated the effects of plant density on cleistogamous (CL) and chasmogamous (CH) flowering phenology and seed production in a natural Impatiens capensis population, by censusing individually marked plants at experimentally reduced and natural densities. CL flowering was earlier at natural density. This plastic density response may have resulted from a stress-related threshold for CL flowering; slower growing plants at natural density flowered earlier. Although apparently triggered by slow early growth, early CL flowering also involved an additional cost for later growth rate. In contrast, CH flowering was unrelated to relative growth rate, but apparently required a size threshold. Experimental density reduction resulted in earlier CH flowering and a dramatic increase in the percentage of plants producing CH flowers. Individual CL and CH flowering duration and flower production were greater at reduced density. These density-dependent effects caused differences between treatments in the shape and location of population flowering phenology curves. Moreover, the percentage of CH seeds produced per individual was much higher at reduced density. At natural density total seed production per plant was lower and more hierarchical than at lower density, suggesting that dominance and suppression shape jewelweed fitness distributions.     

Influence of plant phenology on the insect herbivore/bittercress interaction

Summary We tested the hypothesis that generally higher levels of herbivory on bittercress in sun vs in shade, especially by leaf miners, were related to the earlier phenological development of plants in the sun. Naturally-occurring plants in the sun were taller and had longer leaves than did those in the shade during the first three weeks of the growing season, which corresponded with the timing of adult fly oviposition. We divided individual bittercress plants from the sun into three parts: one part was transplanted into willow shade immediately after snow melt; the other two parts were replanted in the sun and one of these was sprayed with insecticide. The transplant experiment had two primary results. First, bittercress transplanted into the shade suffered significantly higher levels of insect damage than either treatment in the sun. Leaf-mining in the shade also increased and equalled that observed in the sun. These results strongly support the phenology hypothesis; higher damage in the sun is due, at least in part, to the earlier development of plants in sun vs in shade early in the season. Second, the ramets with the greatest damage, e.g. the shade treatment, initiated significantly fewer rosettes than did ramets in the other two treatments. The decrease in vegetative reproduction may have been due to the direct effects of increased insect herbivory on these shade plants. This result is particularly interesting because so little information is available on below-ground, vegetative reproductive response to chronic, above-ground foliage loss to native herbs caused by insect herbivores.     

Adult emergence phenology in checkerspot butterflies: the effects of macroclimate,topoclimate, and population history

The prediction of adult emergence times in insect populations can be greatly complicated by microclimatic gradients, especially in circumstances where distributions of juveniles along those gradients vary from year to year. To investigate adult emergence patterns in topographically heterogeneous habitats, we built a model of postdiapause development of the Bay checkerspot butterfly, Euphydryas editha bayensis. The model uses slope-specific insolation as the rate-controlling variable, and accounts for both solar exposure of the habitat and cloud cover. Instar-specific larval mass gains per unit of insolation were determined from mark-recapture experiments. A small correction for daily low temperatures was used to calibrate the model to five years of field data on larval mass. The model predicted mean mass of 90% of larval samples within 4 clear days over a 70–120 day growing season. The magnitude of spatial variation in emergence times across habitat slopes is greater than annual variation in emergence times due to yearly weather conditions. Historical variation (yearly shifts in larval distributions across slopes) is an important determinant of mean population emergence dates. All of these factors need to be considered in understanding adult emergence phenology in this butterfly and in other insects inhabiting heterogeneous thermal environments. Such an understanding can be useful in managing insect populations for both pest control and conservation.