Myosin 1E coordinates actin assembly and cargo trafficking during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Myosin 1E (Myo1E) is recruited to sites of clathrin-mediated endocytosis coincident with a burst of actin assembly. The recruitment dynamics and lifetime of Myo1E are similar to those of tagged actin polymerization regulatory proteins. Like inhibition of actin assembly, depletion of Myo1E causes reduced transferrin endocytosis and a significant delay in transferrin trafficking to perinuclear compartments, demonstrating an integral role for Myo1E in these actin-mediated steps. Mistargeting of GFP-Myo1E or its src-homology 3 domain to mitochondria results in appearance of WIP, WIRE, N-WASP, and actin filaments at the mitochondria, providing evidence for Myo1E's role in actin assembly regulation. These results suggest for mammalian cells, similar to budding yeast, interdependence in the recruitment of type I myosins, WIP/WIRE, and N-WASP to endocytic sites for Arp2/3 complex activation to assemble F-actin as endocytic vesicles are being formed.     

Coordination between the actin cytoskeleton and membrane deformation by a novel membrane tubulation domain of PCH proteins is involved in endocytosis

The conserved FER-CIP4 homology (FCH) domain is found in the pombe Cdc15 homology (PCH) protein family members, including formin-binding protein 17 (FBP17). However, the amino acid sequence homology extends beyond the FCH domain. We have termed this region the extended FC (EFC) domain. We found that FBP17 coordinated membrane deformation with actin cytoskeleton reorganization during endocytosis. The EFC domains of FBP17, CIP4, and other PCH protein family members show weak homology to the Bin-amphiphysin-Rvs (BAR) domain. The EFC domains bound strongly to phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and deformed the plasma membrane and liposomes into narrow tubules. Most PCH proteins possess an SH3 domain that is known to bind to dynamin and that recruited and activated neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) at the plasma membrane. FBP17 and/or CIP4 contributed to the formation of the protein complex, including N-WASP and dynamin-2, in the early stage of endocytosis. Furthermore, knockdown of endogenous FBP17 and CIP4 impaired endocytosis. Our data indicate that PCH protein family members couple membrane deformation to actin cytoskeleton reorganization in various cellular processes.     

A feedback loop between dynamin and actin recruitment during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis proceeds by a sequential series of reactions catalyzed by discrete sets of protein machinery. The final reaction in clathrin-mediated endocytosis is membrane scission, which is mediated by the large guanosine triophosphate hydrolase (GTPase) dynamin and which may involve the actin-dependent recruitment of N-terminal containing BIN/Amphiphysin/RVS domain containing (N-BAR) proteins. Optical microscopy has revealed a detailed picture of when and where particular protein types are recruited in the ～20-30 s preceding scission. Nevertheless, the regulatory mechanisms and functions that underpin protein recruitment are not well understood. Here we used an optical assay to investigate the coordination and interdependencies between the recruitment of dynamin, the actin cytoskeleton, and N-BAR proteins to individual clathrin-mediated endocytic scission events. These measurements revealed that a feedback loop exists between dynamin and actin at sites of membrane scission. The kinetics of dynamin, actin, and N-BAR protein recruitment were modulated by dynamin GTPase activity. Conversely, acute ablation of actin dynamics using latrunculin-B led to a ～50% decrease in the incidence of scission, an ～50% decrease in the amplitude of dynamin recruitment, and abolished actin and N-BAR recruitment to scission events. Collectively these data suggest that dynamin, actin, and N-BAR proteins work cooperatively to efficiently catalyze membrane scission. Dynamin controls its own recruitment to scission events by modulating the kinetics of actin and N-BAR recruitment to sites of scission. Conversely actin serves as a dynamic scaffold that concentrates dynamin and N-BAR proteins at sites of scission.     

SLAC,a complex between Sla1 and Las17, regulates actin polymerization during clathrin-mediated endocytosis

During clathrin-mediated endocytosis, branched actin polymerization nucleated by the Arp2/3 complex provides force needed to drive vesicle internalization. Las17 (yeast WASp) is the strongest activator of the Arp2/3 complex in yeast cells; it is not autoinhibited and arrives to endocytic sites 20 s before actin polymerization begins. It is unclear how Las17 is kept inactive for 20 s at endocytic sites, thus restricting actin polymerization to late stages of endocytosis. In this paper, we demonstrate that Las17 is part of a large and biochemically stable complex with Sla1, a clathrin adaptor that inhibits Las17 activity. The interaction is direct, multivalent, and strong, and was mapped to novel Las17 polyproline motifs that are simultaneously class I and class II. In vitro pyrene-actin polymerization assays established that Sla1 inhibition of Las17 activity depends on the class I/II Las17 polyproline motifs and is based on competition between Sla1 and monomeric actin for binding to Las17. Furthermore, live-cell imaging showed the interaction with Sla1 is important for normal Las17 recruitment to endocytic sites, inhibition during the initial 20 s, and efficient endocytosis. These results advance our understanding of the regulation of actin polymerization in endocytosis.     

Key role of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in synaptic vesicle recycling

Using novel fluorescent markers, virus-induced modulation of amphiphysin 1 expression, and electron microscopy, we demonstrated that clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the main mechanism of synaptic vesicle retrieval; a hypothesis on the role of a fast “kiss-and-run” mechanism has not been supported. Neirofiziologiya/Neurophysiology, Vol. 39, Nos. 4/5, pp. 388–389, July–October, 2007.     

Importance of the pleckstrin homology domain of dynamin in clathrin-mediated endocytosis

The GTPase dynamin plays an essential role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis [1] [2] [3]. Substantial evidence suggests that dynamin oligomerisation around the necks of endocytosing vesicles and subsequent dynamin-catalysed GTP hydrolysis is responsible for membrane fission [4] [5]. The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of dynamin has previously been shown to interact with phosphoinositides, but it has not been determined whether this interaction is essential for dynamin's function in endocytosis [6] [7] [8] [9]. In this study, we address the in vivo function of the PH domain of dynamin by assaying the effects of deletions and point mutations in this region on transferrin uptake in COS-7 fibroblasts. Overexpression of a dynamin construct lacking its entire PH domain potently blocked transferrin uptake, as did overexpression of a dynamin construct containing a mutation in the first variable loop of the PH domain. Structural modelling of this latter mutant suggested that the lysine residue at position 535 (Lys535) may be critical in the coordination of phosphoinositides, and indeed, the purified mutant no longer interacted with lipid nanotubes. Interestingly, the inhibitory phenotype of cells expressing this dynamin mutant was partially relieved by a second mutation in the carboxy-terminal proline-rich domain (PRD), one that prevents dynamin from binding to the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain of amphiphysin. These data demonstrate that dynamin's interaction with phosphoinositides through its PH domain is essential for endocytosis. These findings also support our hypothesis that PRD-SH3 domain interactions are important in the recruitment of dynamin to sites of endocytosis.     

Control of lipid organization and actin assembly during clathrin-mediated endocytosis by the cytoplasmic tail of the rhomboid protein Rbd2

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is facilitated by a precisely regulated burst of actin assembly. PtdIns(4,5)P2 is an important signaling lipid with conserved roles in CME and actin assembly regulation. Rhomboid family multipass transmembrane proteins regulate diverse cellular processes; however, rhomboid-mediated CME regulation has not been described. We report that yeast lacking the rhomboid protein Rbd2 exhibit accelerated endocytic-site dynamics and premature actin assembly during CME through a PtdIns(4,5)P2-dependent mechanism. Combined genetic and biochemical studies showed that the cytoplasmic tail of Rbd2 binds directly to PtdIns(4,5)P2 and is sufficient for Rbd2''s role in actin regulation. Analysis of an Rbd2 mutant with diminished PtdIns(4,5)P2-binding capacity indicates that this interaction is necessary for the temporal regulation of actin assembly during CME. The cytoplasmic tail of Rbd2 appears to modulate PtdIns(4,5)P2 distribution on the cell cortex. The syndapin-like F-BAR protein Bzz1 functions in a pathway with Rbd2 to control the timing of type 1 myosin recruitment and actin polymerization onset during CME. This work reveals that the previously unstudied rhomboid protein Rbd2 functions in vivo at the nexus of three highly conserved processes: lipid regulation, endocytic regulation, and cytoskeletal function.     

Cooperation of phosphoinositides and BAR domain proteins in endosomal tubulation

Phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) regulate many intracellular events, including vesicular trafficking and actin remodeling, by recruiting proteins to their sites of function. PtdIns(4,5)-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] and related phosphoinositides are mainly synthesized by type I PtdIns-4-phosphate 5-kinases (PIP5Ks). We found that PIP5K induces endosomal tubules in COS-7 cells. ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) 6 has been shown to act upstream of PIP5K and regulate endocytic transport and tubulation. ARF GAP with coiled-coil, ankyrin repeat, and pleckstrin homology domains 1 (ACAP1) has guanosine triphosphatase-activating protein (GAP) activity for ARF6. While there were few tubules induced by the expression of ACAP1 alone, numerous endosomal tubules were induced by coexpression of PIP5K and ACAP1. ACAP1 has a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain known to bind phosphoinositide and a Bin/amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain that has been reported to detect membrane curvature. Truncated and point mutations in the ACAP1 BAR and PH domains revealed that both BAR and PH domains are required for tubulation. These results suggest that two ARF6 downstream molecules, PIP5K and ACAP1, function together in endosomal tubulation and that phosphoinositide levels may regulate endosomal dynamics.     

SNX9 regulates dynamin assembly and is required for efficient clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Dynamin, a central player in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, interacts with several functionally diverse SH3 domain-containing proteins. However, the role of these interactions with regard to dynamin function is poorly defined. We have investigated a recently identified protein partner of dynamin, SNX9, sorting nexin 9. SNX9 binds directly to both dynamin-1 and dynamin-2. Moreover by stimulating dynamin assembly, SNX9 stimulates dynamin's basal GTPase activity and potentiates assembly-stimulated GTPase activity on liposomes. In fixed cells, we observe that SNX9 partially localizes to clathrin-coated pits. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy in living cells, we detect a transient burst of EGFP-SNX9 recruitment to clathrin-coated pits that occurs during the late stages of vesicle formation and coincides spatially and temporally with a burst of dynamin-mRFP fluorescence. Transferrin internalization is inhibited in HeLa cells after siRNA-mediated knockdown of SNX9. Thus, our results establish that SNX9 is required for efficient clathrin-mediated endocytosis and suggest that it functions to regulate dynamin activity.     

Cargo recognition during clathrin-mediated endocytosis: a team effort

Transmembrane proteins destined to endosomes are selectively accumulated in clathrin-coated pits at the plasma membrane and rapidly internalized in clathrin-coated vesicles. The recognition of specific sequence motifs in transmembrane cargo by coated-pit proteins confers specificity on the endocytic process. Interaction of membrane cargo with the clathrin adaptor protein complex AP-2 is the major mechanism of cargo sorting into coated pits in mammalian cells. Recent studies have revealed a variety of alternative mechanisms of cargo recruitment involving additional adaptor proteins. These alternative mechanisms appear to be particularly important during clathrin-mediated endocytosis of signaling receptors.     

Dynamin GTPase domain mutants that differentially affect GTP binding, GTP hydrolysis, and clathrin-mediated endocytosis

The GTPase dynamin is essential for clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Unlike most GTPases, dynamin has a low affinity for nucleotide, a high rate of GTP hydrolysis, and can self-assemble, forming higher order structures such as rings and spirals that exhibit up to 100-fold stimulated GTPase activity. The role(s) of GTP binding and/or hydrolysis in endocytosis remain unclear because mutations in the GTPase domain so far studied impair both. We generated a new series of GTPase domain mutants to probe the mechanism of GTP hydrolysis and to further test the role of GTP binding and/or hydrolysis in endocytosis. Each of the mutations had parallel effects on assembly-stimulated and basal GTPase activities. In contrast to previous reports, we find that mutation of Thr-65 to Ala (or Asp or His) dramatically lowered both the rate of assembly-stimulated GTP hydrolysis and the affinity for GTP. The assemblystimulated rate of hydrolysis was lowered by the mutation of Ser-61 to Asp and increased by the mutation of Thr-141 to Ala without significantly altering the Km for GTP. For some mutants and to a lesser extent for WT dynamin, self-assembly dramatically altered the Km for GTP, suggesting that conformational changes in the active site accompany self-assembly. Analysis of transferrin endocytosis rates in cells overexpressing mutant dynamins revealed a stronger correlation with both the basal and assembly-stimulated rates of GTP hydrolysis than with the calculated ratio of dynamin-GTP/free dynamin, suggesting that GTP binding is not sufficient, and GTP hydrolysis is required for clathrin-mediated endocytosis in vivo.     

Intersectin 2, a new multimodular protein involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Intersectin 1 (ITSN1) is a binding partner of dynamin that has been shown to participate in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Here we report the characterization of a new human gene, ITSN2, highly similar to ITSN1. Alternative splicing of ITSN2 generates a short isoform with two EH domains, a coiled-coil region and five SH3 domains, and a longer isoform containing extra carboxy domains (DH, PH and C2 domains), suggesting that it could act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rho-like GTPases. ITSN2 expression analysis indicates that it is widely expressed in human tissues. Intersectin 2 isoforms show a subcellular distribution similar to other components of the endocytic machinery and co-localize with Eps15. Moreover, their overexpression, as well as the corresponding ITSN1 protein forms, inhibits transferrin internalization.     

Myosin VI isoform localized to clathrin-coated vesicles with a role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

Myosin VI is involved in membrane traffic and dynamics and is the only myosin known to move towards the minus end of actin filaments. Splice variants of myosin VI with a large insert in the tail domain were specifically expressed in polarized cells containing microvilli. In these polarized cells, endogenous myosin VI containing the large insert was concentrated at the apical domain co-localizing with clathrin- coated pits/vesicles. Using full-length myosin VI and deletion mutants tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) we have shown that myosin VI associates and co-localizes with clathrin-coated pits/vesicles by its C-terminal tail. Myosin VI, precipitated from whole cytosol, was present in a protein complex containing adaptor protein (AP)-2 and clathrin, and enriched in purified clathrin-coated vesicles. Over-expression of the tail domain of myosin VI containing the large insert in fibroblasts reduced transferrin uptake in transiently and stably transfected cells by >50%. Myosin VI is the first motor protein to be identified associated with clathrin-coated pits/vesicles and shown to modulate clathrin-mediated endocytosis.     

Distinct role of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in the functional uptake of cholera toxin

The involvement of the clathrin-mediated endocytic internalization route in the uptake of cholera toxin (CT) was investigated using different cell lines, including the human intestinal Caco-2 and T84 cell lines, green monkey Vero cells, SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. Suppression of the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway by classical biochemical procedures, like intracellular acidification and potassium depletion, inhibited cholera toxin uptake by up to about 50% as well as its ability to raise intracellular levels of cAMP. Also prior exposure of these cell types to the cationic amphiphilic drug chlorpromazine reduced the functional uptake of cholera toxin, even to a greater extent. These effects were dose- and cell type-dependent, suggesting an involvement of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in the functional uptake of cholera toxin. For a more straightforward approach to study the role of the clathrin-mediated uptake in the internalization of cholera toxin, a Caco-2(eps-) cell line was exploited. These Caco-2(eps-) cells constitutively suppress the expression of epsin, an essential accessory protein of clathrin-mediated endocytosis, thereby selectively blocking this internalization route. CT uptake was found to be reduced by over 60% in Caco-2(eps-) paralleled by a diminished ability of CT to raise the level of cAMP. The data presented suggest that the clathrin-mediated uptake route fulfils an important role in the functional internalization of cholera toxin in several cell types.     

A Pan1/End3/Sla1 complex links Arp2/3-mediated actin assembly to sites of clathrin-mediated endocytosis

More than 60 highly conserved proteins appear sequentially at sites of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in yeast and mammals. The yeast Eps15-related proteins Pan1 and End3 and the CIN85-related protein Sla1 are known to interact with each other in vitro, and they all appear after endocytic-site initiation but before endocytic actin assembly, which facilitates membrane invagination/scission. Here we used live-cell imaging in parallel with genetics and biochemistry to explore comprehensively the dynamic interactions and functions of Pan1, End3, and Sla1. Our results indicate that Pan1 and End3 associate in a stable manner and appear at endocytic sites before Sla1. The End3 C-terminus is necessary and sufficient for its cortical localization via interaction with Pan1, whereas the End3 N-terminus plays a crucial role in Sla1 recruitment. We systematically examined the dynamic behaviors of endocytic proteins in cells in which Pan1 and End3 were simultaneously eliminated, using the auxin-inducible degron system. The results lead us to propose that endocytic-site initiation and actin assembly are separable processes linked by a Pan1/End3/Sla1 complex. Finally, our study provides mechanistic insights into how Pan1 and End3 function with Sla1 to coordinate cargo capture with actin assembly.     

Structural domains of vault proteins: a role for the coiled coil domain in vault assembly

Vaults consist of multiple copies of three proteins (MVP, VPARP, and TEP1) and several untranslated RNAs. The function of vaults is unknown but the typical and evolutionary conserved structure indicates a role in intracellular transport. Although all vault components have been identified and characterized, not much is known about vault protein assembly. In this study we identified and analyzed structural domains involved in vault assembly with emphasis on protein-protein interactions. Using a yeast two-hybrid system, we demonstrate within MVP an intramolecular binding site and show that MVP molecules interact with each other via their coiled coil domain. We show that purified MVP is able to bind calcium, most likely at calcium-binding EF-hands. No interactions could be detected between TEP1 and other vault proteins. However, the N-terminal half of MVP binds to a specific domain in the C-terminus of VPARP. Furthermore, VPARP contains amino acid stretches mediating intramolecular binding.     

Understanding the role of the G-actin-binding domain of Ena/VASP in actin assembly

The Ena/VASP and WASP family of proteins play distinct roles in actin cytoskeleton remodeling. Ena/VASP is linked to actin filament elongation, whereas WASP plays a role in filament nucleation and branching mediated by Arp2/3 complex. The molecular mechanisms controlling both processes are only emerging. Both Ena/VASP and WASP are multidomain proteins. They both present poly-Pro regions, which mediate the binding of profilin-actin, followed by G-actin-binding (GAB) domains of the WASP-homology 2 (WH2) type. However, the WH2 of Ena/VASP is somewhat different from that of WASP, and has been poorly characterized. Here we demonstrate that this WH2 binds profilin-actin with higher affinity than actin alone. The results are consistent with a model whereby allosteric modulation of affinity drives the transition of profilin-actin from the poly-Pro region to the WH2 and then to the barbed end of the filament during elongation. Therefore, the function of the WH2 in Ena/VASP appears to be to "process" profilin-actin for its incorporation at the barbed end of the growing filament. Conformational changes in the newly incorporated actin subunit, resulting either from nucleotide hydrolysis or from the G- to F-actin transition, may serve as a "sensor" for the processive stepping of Ena/VASP. Conserved domain architecture suggests that WASP may work similarly.     

Synaptic endocytosis: illuminating the role of clathrin assembly

Acute photo-inactivation of clathrin in Drosophila synapses sheds new light on a 35-year-old debate over mechanisms of synaptic-vesicle endocytosis: clathrin is essential for reformation of functional synaptic vesicles, but not for bulk membrane internalization.     

Caenorhabditis elegans auxilin: a J-domain protein essential for clathrin-mediated endocytosis in vivo

The budding of clathrin-coated vesicles is essential for protein transport. After budding, clathrin must be uncoated before the vesicles can fuse with other membranous structures. In vitro, the molecular chaperone Hsc70 uncoats clathrin-coated vesicles in an ATP-dependent process that requires a specific J-domain protein such as auxilin. However, there is little evidence that either Hsc70 or auxilin is essential in vivo. Here we show that C. elegans has a single auxilin homologue that is identical to mammalian auxilin in its in vitro activity. When RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is used to inhibit auxilin expression in C. elegans, oocytes show markedly reduced receptor-mediated endocytosis of yolk protein tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP). In addition, most of these worms arrest during larval development, exhibit defective distribution of GFP-clathrin in many cell types, and show a marked change in clathrin dynamics, as determined by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). We conclude that auxilin is required for in vivo clathrin-mediated endocytosis and development in C. elegans.