Reference values for biochemical parameters in blood serum of young and adult alpacas (Vicugna pacos)

The aim of this study was to establish reference interval for biochemical parameters in blood of alpacas on the basis of large population of clinically healthy animals, and to determine the influence of sex, age and season on nitrogen and lipid metabolites, enzymes, electrolytes, vitamins and minerals in blood of alpacas. Blood samples were collected from 311 alpacas (61 males and 201 females >6 months of age and 49 crias (21 males and 28 females) ⩽6 months of age). Selected farms were located in Central Europe (Czech Republic and Germany). We determined 24 biochemical parameters from blood serum. We performed the comparison of results by the sex of animals and for the older group also the comparison of the results with regard to the season, respectively, to the feeding period. We found no highly significant difference (P<0.01) between males and females with the exception of γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and cholesterol. We found 15 significantly different parameters between the group of crias 6 months of age and the older alpacas. Based on our findings we suggest for most parameters to use different reference intervals (especially ALP, cholesterol, total protein, globulin, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), GGT and phosphorus) for the two above-mentioned age groups. Another important finding is the differences between some parameters in older group of alpacas in summer/winter feeding period. Animals in the summer feeding period have higher values of parameters related to fat mobilization (β-hydroxybutyrate, NEFA) and liver metabolism (bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase). The winter period with increased feeding of supplements with higher amount of fat, vitamins and minerals is characteristic by increased values of cholesterol, triglycerides, vitamins A and E, and some minerals (K, Ca, Mg and Cl) in blood serum. Clinical laboratory diagnosis of metabolic disturbances may be improved with use of age-based reference values and with consideration of seasonal differences.     

Genetic variation and distances of five Italian native sheep breeds

Genetic distances among five of the most important Italian native sheep breeds were estimated by using gene frequencies of four blood group and seven blood protein loci and by three different computing methods. The values of the three distance matrices were highly correlated. Genetic distances were found within the range values reported in the literature for local breeds. Shorter distances fitted the historical evidence of migrations.     

First report of Neospora caninum infection in adult alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama)

Neospora caninum is a cyst-forming coccidian that mainly affects bovines, although Neospora infection has also been described in other domestic and wild ruminant species. Serum samples from 78 alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and 73 llamas (Lama glama) at a unique dilution of 1:50 tested by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) were further analyzed serologically by IFAT and Western blot in both ruminant species to avoid cross-reactions with closely related coccidian parasites and to confirm the existence of N. caninum-specific antibodies. IFAT titers ranging between 1:50 and 1:800 were found. When using Western blot, N. caninum tachyzoite-specific immunodominant antigens with apparent molecular weights of 17-18, 34-35, 37, and 60-62 kDa were also recognized, although some sera with 1:50 IFAT titers proved not to have N. caninum-specific antibodies. As expected, higher IFAT titers were associated with higher anti-N. caninum reactivity in Western blot. This report documents for the first time the presence of N. caninum infection in adult alpacas and llamas from Peru.     

Prediction of gestational age by ultrasonic fetometry in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos)

Fetal biparietal diameter (BPD) and thorax height (TH) were measured by ultrasound during intrauterine growth in pregnant llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos). The goal was to establish representative curves that allows estimation of gestational age (GA) from real-time ultrasonic measurements of these fetal structures at any stage of gestation. Llamas and alpacas were mated under controlled conditions. Ultrasound exams were conducted to determine pregnancy status 1 month later. Measurements of fetal BPD and TH were conducted from the second month of pregnancy until term. Observation and assessment of fetal TH was difficult during the last 3 months of pregnancy, specially in llamas. Regression curves were calculated from the data as a function of GA, with the best fit represented by the following equations: llama GA=(BPD-0.002399)43.02293,r=0.98,P<0.001; llama GA=(TH-0.07137)46.94485, r=0.95,P<0.001; alpaca GA=(BPD-0.11376)47.23287, r=0.98,P<0.001; alpaca GA=(TH-0.36436)52.87663, r=0.96,P<0.001, where GA was measured in days and BPD and TH in centimeters. Results indicate that ultrasonic measurement of these fetal biometric variables constitute a valuable tool to estimate GA at any stage of pregnancy in these domestic South American camelids.     

Two-dimensional electrophoresis of the plasma proteins of alpacas and llamas: genetic polymorphism of α1B-glycoprotein and three other proteins

Summary. Plasma samples of alpacas and llamas were analysed by a simple method of two-dimensional (2-D) agarose gel (pH 8.6)-horizontal polyacrylamide gel (pH 9.0) electrophoresis, followed by general protein staining of gels. Genetic polymorphism in both species is described for α 1 B-glycoprotein (α 1 B) and three other unidentified proteins designated prealbumin (Pr), postalbumin 1 and 2 (Pal and Pa2). α 1 B was identified by cross-reactivity with antisera for human and pig α 1 B. Altogether, two alleles of Pr, two of Pa1, five of α 1 B and three of Pa2 are described. Most of the alleles were present in alpacas and llamas. Alpacas showed a high degree of polymorphism at all four loci. Llamas showed considerable polymorphism at only the Pa1 and Pa2 loci. The theoretical probability of exclusion (P e ) of an incorrectly assigned parent was estimated to be about 80% in each species by typing for the six polymorphic plasma proteins reported so far in these species. The given method of 2-D electrophoresis revealed no fixed differences in protein mobilities that discriminate between llamas and alpacas.     

Genetic blood markers in Arabian, Barb and Arab-Barb horses in Morocco

Gene frequencies at 16 blood group and protein polymorphism loci (A, C, D, K, P, Q, U, Al, Gc, Es, A1B, Tf, PGD, PGM, GPI and Pi) are given for three horse breeds in Morocco (Arabian, Arab-Barb and Barb). These data are used to calculate average heterozygosity (h), Nei's standard genetic distance (D_N) and probability of exclusion (PE). Variability expressed as the average heterozygosity was lower in the Arabian (0.330 ± 0.066), while it was higher and almost the same in the Arab-Barb (0.413 ± 0.071) and the Barb (0.414 A ± 0–070). The shortest genetic distance was found between Barb and Arab-Barb. The 16 loci used are at least 95% effective for recognizing incorrect paternity in these breeds. The Barb and Arab-Barb genetic profiles obtained showed the rare variants interesting perhaps in the context of European and American breeds: notably D^cfgkm, D^dekl, Es-N, Tf-A and Pi-W.     

Polymorphic plasma postalbumin (Po) of llamas and alpacas identified as Gc protein

Summary. Immunoblotting with antiserum specific to human Gc protein was used to identify Gc protein as the previously reported polymorphic plasma postalbumin (Po) of llamas and alpacas. This is the first report of Gc polymorphism in camelid species. One Gc variant appeared to be identical in llamas, alpacas, dromedaries and bactrian camels.     

Genetic variations in blood proteins within and between Spanish dairy sheep breeds

Eleven flocks of three Spanish sheep breeds have been studied: four Churra, four Lacha and three Manchega. Genetic variations between flocks of the same and different breeds have been analysed, using eight genetic blood systems and a wide range of statistical methods. The results show that the Churra, Lacha and Manchega breeds present significant differences between each other. Significant intraracial variations have been observed in Churras and Lachas, although they were almost non-existent in Manchegas. In some cases the genetic distances between flocks of the same breed were greater than the distances between flocks of different breeds. The data indicate that the closest breeds genetically are Lacha and Manchega.     

Ovulation-inducing factor in the seminal plasma of alpacas and llamas

Studies were conducted to document the existence of an ovulation-inducing factor in the seminal plasma of alpacas (experiment 1) and llamas (experiment 2) and to determine if the effect is mediated via the pituitary (experiment 3). In experiment 1, female alpacas (n = 14 per group) were given alpaca seminal plasma or saline intramuscularly or by intrauterine infusion. Only alpacas that were given seminal plasma i.m. ovulated (13/ 14, 93%; P < 0.01). In experiment 2, ovulation was detected in 9/10 (90%) llamas at a mean of 29.3 +/- 0.7 h after seminal plasma treatment. Plasma progesterone concentrations were maximal by Day 9 and were at nadir by Day 12 posttreatment. In experiment 3, female llamas were given llama seminal plasma, GnRH, or saline i.m., and ovulation was detected in 6/6, 5/ 6, and 0/6 llamas, respectively (P < 0.001). Treatment was followed by a surge (P < 0.01) in plasma LH concentration beginning 15 min and 75 min after treatment with GnRH and seminal plasma, respectively. Plasma LH remained elevated longer in the seminal plasma group (P < 0.05) and had not yet declined to pretreatment levels after 8 h. Compared with the GnRH group, corpus luteum tended to grow longer and to a greater diameter (P = 0.1) and plasma progesterone concentration was twice as high in the seminal plasma group (P < 0.01). Results document the existence of a potent factor in the seminal plasma of alpacas and llamas that elicited a surge in circulating concentrations of LH and induced an ovulatory and luteotropic response.     

Genetic variation of five blood group polymorphisms in ten populations of Assam,India

Six Mongoloid and four Caucasoid populations of Assam, India, were examined for A₁A₂BO, Rhesus, Duffy and Diego blood groups. The distribution of their phenotypes and allele frequencies are presented. In the perspective of the ethnographic background, the results have been discussed in terms of genetic variability among these populations and probable reasons for its existence. The major groups, namely Caucasoids and Mongoloids, appear to form two separate groups in terms of these blood groups, though evidence is there to suggest intermixture.     

Genetic systems of red cell blood groups in goats.

Evidence is presented for six genetic systems of goat red cell blood groups. The A system presently consists of one specificity, two alleles, two phenotypes (A1 and no-A1) and appears to be homologous to the A system of sheep. The B system, like its homologue in sheep, is very complex. Fourteen of 21 specificities detected in the present study, i.e. B2, B3, B4, B5, B7, B8, B9, B10, B11, B14, B15, B16, B17 and B20, belong to the B system which involves a large number of phenogroups (31 different B phenogroups identified in 26 sires). Because of their homology with sheep C and R systems, two other genetic systems of goat blood groups are named C and R respectively. Each of the two goat systems is presently a one blood group specificity, two phenotype (C12 and no-C12; R and no-R detectable on the red cells) two allele system. Two specificities, namely E6 and E18, belong to a genetic system called E in which four phenotypes are under the control of two alleles codominant and one recessive at a single locus. The F system involves but a single pair of alleles and two phenotypes (F19 and no-F19). Because of its low frequency in the goats tested, the X13 specificity remains unassigned.     

Genetic linkage between loci for a red cell alloantigen (U) and serum protease inhibitor (Pi) in the horse

Preliminary evidence for the fifth autosomal linkage group in the horse, comprised of the loci for a red cell alloantigen (U) and serum protease inhibitor (Pi), was demonstrated by means of paternal half-sib groups in thoroughbred, standardbred and Arabian breeds. Recombination frequency in males was estimated to be 0.125 +/- 0.019.     

羊驼毛的结构及其特性研究

为研究羊驼毛的特性并评价羊驼的生产性能,观察了羊驼皮肤和毛的显微结构和超微结构。结果表明:皮肤中皮脂腺很少,这决定了羊驼毛易清洗;毛囊由初级毛囊和大部分复合毛囊组成,因此大部分羊驼毛很细;羊驼毛的髓质比例小于皮质所占比例,而且白毛的髓质与皮质的比例大于有色毛,这决定了羊驼毛轻而具有好的保暖性,且白毛重量轻于有色毛;羊驼毛的皮质细胞具有双层结构,上皮细胞有5层,皮质周围有内、外上皮,这些结构可能使毛避免损伤,并可使黑色素颗粒避免丢失以维持其自然色;羊驼毛的鳞片呈锯齿状并形成裂痕,具有疏水性,因此羊驼毛可以防水。所有这些特点决定了羊驼毛在毛纺工业中是理想的原料。     

Absence or Reduction of Carbonic Anhydrase II in the Red Cells of the Beluga Whale and Llama: Implications for Adaptation to Hypoxia

Carbonic anhydrase (CA) expression was examined in the red cells of two mammals that have adapted to low oxygen stress: the llama, which has adapted to high altitudes, and the beluga (or white) whale, which routinely dives for extended periods. Immunodiffusion analyses of their Hb-free hemolysates and partial amino acid sequencing of their HPLC-separated nonheme proteins indicate that the low-activity CA I isozyme is the major nonheme protein in erythrocytes of both the beluga whale and the llama. The high-activity CA II isozyme was not detected in the whale red cells but was present at low levels in erythrocytes of the llama. These results suggest that the absence or decrease in the expression of the high-activity CA II isozyme may be advantageous under hypoxic conditions.     

羊驼性别决定基因sry部分片段的克隆与序列分析

从成年羊驼血液提取基因组DNA,参照哺乳动物sry(sex-determining region on the Y chromosome)基因的同源保守区域设计特异性引物,用PCR技术成功扩增羊驼sry基因的部分片段,且全部实验雄性个体均成功扩增,而雌性个体则无任何特异性片段,说明所扩增基因片段具雄性特异性。对扩增序列所编码蛋白序列分析显示所扩增的片段编码的蛋白序列在哺乳动物sryHMG-box(high mobility group box)蛋白超家族的HMG-box区域,说明扩增的为sry基因片段。用所扩增片段与其他哺乳动物同源序列分析显示,由sry基因构建的系统进化树,与传统的动物分类关系相近,说明由sry基因的HMG-box构建系统树是分析物种亲缘关系的有效工具。     

Blood group and protein polymorphism gene frequencies for seven breeds of horses in the United States

Gene frequencies at 20 blood group and protein polymorphism loci ( A, C, D, K, P, Q, U, Al, Tf, Pi, Xk, Es, Gc, PGD, CA, Cat, PGM, AP, Hb and PHI ) are given for seven horse breeds in the United States (Thoroughbred, Arabian, Standard bred, Morgan, Quarter Horse, Paso Fino and Peruvian Paso). These data are used to calculate that the battery of tests is at least 96% effective for recognizing incorrect paternity in these breeds. In addition to paternity testing, these tests can be applied to studies of breed relationships.     

Comparison of the effect of ovulation-inducing factor (OIF) in the seminal plasma of llamas, alpacas, and bulls

We have recently reported the presence of an ovulation-inducing factor (OIF) in the seminal plasma of llamas and alpacas-species characterized as induced ovulators. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that the seminal plasma of bulls will induce ovulation in llamas, and to compare the ovulation-inducing effect of seminal plasma of conspecific versus hetero-specific males. The seminal plasma of alpacas, a closely related induced ovulator (Lama pacos), and cattle, a distantly related ruminant species (Bos taurus) considered to be spontaneous ovulators, were compared with that of the llama (Lama glama). Ovulation and maximum corpus luteum diameter were compared by ultrasonography among female llamas (n=19 per group) treated intramuscularly with 2 mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS, negative control) and those treated with 2 mL of seminal plasma of bulls, alpacas, or llamas (conspecific control). The diameter of the preovulatory follicle did not differ among groups at the time of treatment. Bull seminal plasma induced ovulations in 26% (5/19) of llamas compared to 0% (0/19) in PBS group (P<0.001). The proportion of females that ovulated was lower (P<0.01) in bull seminal plasma group compared to the groups treated with alpaca or llama seminal plasma (100%). A corpus luteum was detected on Day 8 (Day 0=treatment) in all llamas in which ovulation was detected earlier (Day 2) by ultrasonography. The diameter of the CL did not differ among groups. Results document the presence of an ovulation-inducing factor in the seminal plasma of B. taurus. The interspecies effects of seminal plasma on ovulation and luteal development provide rationale for the hypothesis that OIF is conserved among both spontaneous and induced ovulating species.     

Blood groups and biochemical polymorphism in the Namaqua sheep breed

Summary. The Namaqua is an indigenous fat-tailed African breed of sheep which has remained relatively isolated and which at one time dwindled to near extinction. Frequency data are given for blood group antigens, red cell glutathione and potassium types, for electrophoretic variants of red cell haemoglobin, 'X' protein, nucleoside phosphorylase, NADH-diaphorase, lysine and carbonic anhydrase and of plasma esterase, transferrin and albumin. Of particular interest was the occurrence of the i blood group, a bimodal distribution in red cell glutathione concentrations and red cell potassium concentrations of around 57 mmo1/1 cells, i.e. neither typically LK nor HK type.     

Evolution and present situation of the South American Camelidae

This paper provides a review of South American camelid evolution, classification and present status. Particular attention is paid to the debate concerning origins of the domestic alpaca and llama and the contribution of research on faunal remains from Andean archaeological sites towards resolving this issue. Changes in incisor morphology during the domestication process suggest that the alpaca may be descended from the vicuna, while a comparison of fibre production characteristics in preconquest and extant llama and alpaca breeds indicates that extensive hybridization between the two species is likely to have occurred since European contact. The potential role of hybridization in the formation of extant South American camelid populations has not been studied, and may be the root cause of taxonomic disputes.