遗传密码的高维空间对称性

对称性是由均衡比例产生的匀称美。对称性和对称破缺在自然界和生命现象中普遍存在。20种氨基酸和终止码共有64个遗传密码子,组成一个6维的编码空间。遗传密码空间以对称轴将空间分成对称的两大部分：嘌呤空间和嘧啶空间。遗传密码子的简并以对称轴为参考轴,呈平行排列。高简并度氨基酸（6,4,3,简并度）和低筒并度氨基酸（1,2简并度）的简并子空间近似呈周期性的双方错方式排列。遗传密码的简并与4种核苷酸的二进制数字编码,具有密切的关系。经过分析,可得出遗传密码的连通性λλ简并法则：“除丝氨酸的密码子分成两个与对称轴平行的,分离的子空间之外,其余氨基酸和终止密码的密码子,都通过与空间对称轴平行的λλ平面或λ边简并,组成独立的,单一的连通子空间。”并对氨基酸密码子的惯用率与编码空间的对称关系,以及数字生物学的意义进行了分析和讨论。     

遗传密码格式的组合编码数分析

用N个密码子对m个编码对象进行编码的编码格式是m元N维空间中的一个顶点。64个密码子对20种氨基酸和终止密码子进行编码格式的组合编码数是一个十分巨大的数字。对多元高维编码空间的拓扑特性进行了分析和研究 ,并由此推导出m -N空间的特性三角的排列方式以及给出特性三角公式的数学证明。指出 ,目前的遗传密码的编码格式是21元64维编码空间的一个顶点。应用组合数学分析的方法 ,计算了遗传密码格式的最大组合编码数CM =4.19×1084 ,基因组遗传密码的组合编码数CG =1.13×1080 以及线粒体遗传密码的组合编码数CT =1.38×1079 等。分析结果表明 ,遗传密码的指定是一个小概率事件 ,可能来源于λ简并后的偶数三联密码配对的组合编码的对称破缺     

遗传密码及其演变

在线粒体的蛋白质合成系统中,tRNA只有20几种,是以“三中读二”的方式识别密码子的;而线粒体有自己的密码字典,如终止密码UGA,在那里却为色氨酸编码。tRNA也经历过改变,出现修饰碱基,专一性增强。这说明遗传密码有一个演变过程。     

遗传密码及其演变

在线粒体的蛋白质合成系统中,tRNA只有20几种,是以“三中读二”的方式识别密码子的;而线粒体有自己的密码字典,如终止密码UGA,在那里却为色氨酸编码。tRNA也经历过改变,出现修饰碱基,专一性增强。这说明遗传密码有一个演变过程。     

遗传密码的新排列和起源探讨

根据DNA核苷酸组分的动态变化规律将遗传密码的传统排列按密码子对GC和嘌呤含量的敏感性进行了重排.新密码表可划分为2个半区（或1/2区）和4个四分区（或1/4区）.就原核生物基因组而言,当GC含量增加时,物种蛋白质组所含的氨基酸倾向于使用GC富集区和嘌呤不敏感半区所编码的氨基酸,它们均使用四重简并密码,对DNA序列的突变具有相对鲁棒性（Robustness）.当GC含量降低时,大多数密码子处于AU富集区和嘌呤敏感半区,这个区域编码的氨基酸具有物理化学性质的多样性.因为当密码子第三位核苷酸（CP3）在嘌呤和嘧啶之间发生转换时,密码子所编码的氨基酸也倾向于发生变化.关于遗传密码的进化存在多种假说,包括凝固事件假说、共进化假说和立体化学假说等,每种假说均试图解释遗传密码所表现出来的某些化学和生物学规律.基于遗传密码的物理化学性质、基因组变异的规律和相关的生物学假说,本研究提出了遗传密码分步进化假说（The Stepwise Evolution Hypothesis for the Genetic Code）.在人们推断的最原始的RNA世界里,原初（Primordial）遗传密码从只能识别嘌呤和嘧啶开始,编码一个或两个简单而功能明确的氨基酸.由于胞嘧啶C的化学不稳定性,最初形成的遗传密码应该仅仅由腺嘌呤A和尿嘧啶U来编码,却可得到一组7个多元化的氨基酸.随着生命复杂性的增加,鸟嘌呤G从主载操作信号的功能中释放出来,再伴随着C的引入,使遗传密码逐步扩展到12,15和20个氨基酸,最终完成全部进化步骤.遗传密码的进化过程同时也伴随以蛋白质为主体的分子机制和细胞过程的进化,包括氨酰tRNA合成酶（AARS）从初始翻译机器上的脱离、DNA作为信息载体而取代RNA以及AARS和tRNA共进化等基本过程.分子机制和细胞过程是生命的基本组成元件,它们不但自己不断地趋于完善,也促使生命体走?     

中国狼（Canis lupus chanco）线粒体全基因组序列分析

参照近缘物种线粒体全基因组序列,设计14 对特异引物,采用PCR产物直接测序法测得中国狼线粒体基因组全序列,并分析其基因组特点和各基因的定位.用pDRAW32软件,预测12种限制性酶的酶切图谱.结果表明,中国狼线粒体基因组全长16 774 bp, 包括13 个蛋白质编码基因、2 个rRNA 基因、22 个tRNA 基因和1个非编码控制区.除ND2、 ND3和ND5 基因以ATA作为起始密码子外,其它基因的起始密码子均为ATG.除COXⅢ、 ND4、 ND3基因的终止密码子分别为不完全的T,T,TA;ND2,COXⅡ,Cytb基因的终止密码子分别是TAG、TAG、AGA外;其余基因均以TAA作为终止密码子,而欧亚狼和狗COXⅡ基因则以TAA终止.基于近缘哺乳动物15种近缘物种的线粒体基因组的12S rRNA 和 16S rRNA 基因全序列,用邻近法、最大简约法和最大似然法构建系统进化树,系统进化关系与传统的系统分类基本一致.并在已有文献的基础上,探讨了中国狼的进化地位.     

萧氏松茎象线粒体基因组全序列测定与分析

象甲是鞘翅目中物种最丰富的类群, 目前关于其线粒体基因组全序列的研究还未见报道。本研究利用长距PCR和引物步移法对萧氏松茎象Hylobitelus xiaoi Zhang线粒体基因组全序列进行了测定。结果显示： 萧氏松茎象线粒体基因组序列全长16 123 bp（GenBank登录号为JX847496）, 共编码37个基因和1个非编码的控制区, 基因次序与典型的六足动物线粒体基因排列一致, 未发现基因重排现象。在基因组中两个值得注意的发现分别是： 1）N链上存在1个额外的trnV-like序列, 反密码子为GAC, 长度为69 bp, 其中65 bp与J链上的trnD重叠; 2）trnS^UCN和nad1之间存在1个长度为232 bp的基因间隔区。全部13个蛋白质编码基因的起始密码子均为ATN, 9个蛋白质编码基因的终止密码子为TAA, 其余4个蛋白质编码基因中, nad1和cox2的终止密码子为TAG, nad4和nad5则以不完整的终止密码子T作为终止信号。除trnS^AGN外, 其余的tRNAs均可形成典型的三叶草结构。而trnS^AGN的反密码子由TCT替代GCT, 反密码子臂延长形成9 bp（中间含1个碱基突起）, TΨC臂由正常的5 bp变为6 bp, DHU臂缩短仅1 bp, 各个臂之间没有连接碱基。线粒体控制区中包括10处长度不少于5 bp的poly-T（最长poly-T长度为14 bp）和2处微卫星样重复序列 (TA)₆和(TA)₉。本研究结果为探讨象甲总科在鞘翅目中的系统学地位及其与其他总科间的系统发生关系等问题提供了重要的分子生物学数据。     

广西华珊瑚蛇线粒体基因组全序列测定与分析

本研究对眼镜蛇科广西华珊瑚蛇（Sinomicrurus peinani）线粒体基因组序列进行测定与分析,并探究其与近缘种的系统发育关系。结果表明,广西华珊瑚蛇线粒体基因组是一条全长19 477 bp的环状DNA,基因组碱基构成为A（33.4%）、T（28.1%）、C（26.6%）和G（11.9%）。共编码38个基因,包含2个核糖体RNA（rRNA）基因、22个转移RNA（tRNA）基因、13个蛋白质编码基因及1个线粒体基因控制区（D-loop）。13个蛋白质编码基因均采用AUG作为起始密码子,UAA和UGA作为终止密码子;蛋白质编码基因编码频率较高的氨基酸分别为亮氨酸（Leu）、异亮氨酸（Ile）、苏氨酸（Thr）和丝氨酸（Ser）;相对密码子使用度（RSCU）频率最高的4个密码子依次是CGA、UGA、CUA和CCA。22个tRNA,除tRNASer（一臂两环）外其他均可形成典型三叶草结构。基于眼镜蛇科线粒体基因组系统发育分析结果表明,与广西华珊瑚蛇关系最密切的是中华珊瑚蛇（Sinomicrurus macclellandi）,其次是孟加拉眼镜蛇（Naja kaouthia）与眼镜王蛇（Ophiophagus hannah）。     

孟加拉笛鲷线粒体基因组序列结构及其进化

采用Long-PCR扩增线粒体全基因组方法得到了孟加拉笛鲷线粒体基因组全序列.序列分析结果表明,孟加拉笛鲷线粒体基因组序列全长16 511 bp,共有13个编码蛋白质基因、22个tRNA基因、2个rRNA基因和1个D-loop区.在编码蛋白质基因中,除COⅠ是以GTG作为起始密码子外,其它均是以ATG起始,NDⅠ、COⅡ、ND3以TAG作为终止密码子,而ND4、Cyt b则以不完全的T为终止密码子,其余8个蛋白质基因的终止密码子均为TAA.孟加拉笛鲷线粒体基因组各基因长度、位置与典型的脊椎动物相似,其编码蛋白质基因和rRNA基因与其它硬骨鱼类具有很高的同源性.基于14种笛鲷线粒体区段COⅠ、COⅡ和Cyt b基因的全序列合并成的一个组合数据集构建系统进化树,显示孟加拉笛鲷与四带笛鲷关系最为密切.     

陆地棉线粒体nad6基因mRNA无常规终止密码子

植物线粒体nad6基因编码NADH（还原型辅酶Ⅰ）脱氢酶第6亚基,前期研究发现,该基因可能与棉花细胞质雄性不育相关,但该基因的转录情况尚不清楚.本研究利用PCR测序、Southern印迹方法发现,陆地棉线粒体基因组（mtDNA）中nad6基因长621 bp,且为单拷贝. RT-PCR及环化RT-PCR分析发现,其mRNA在终止密码子前-14或-15 nt处提前终止|虽然该基因mRNA编码区存在12处RNA编辑（C-U）位点,但并未产生新的替代的终止密码子|基因mRNAs尾端poly（A）处含有0、1、2或4个“A”,也并未与前方相邻碱基凑成新的终止密码子,即：该基因mRNA无常规终止密码子（UGA,UAG,UAA）.本研究结果提示,棉花线粒体nad6基因mRNA很可能有其它的终止密码子.针对这种情况对植物线粒体如何翻译无常规终止密码子的mRNA进行了讨论.     

On the information content of the genetic code

In living organisms 20 amino acids along with the terminator value(s) are encoded by 64 codons giving a degeneracy of the codons as described by the genetic code. A basic theoretical problem of genetic codes is to explain the particular distribution of degeneracies of partitions involved in the codes. In this work the degeneracy problem is considered in the framework of information theory. It is shown by direct numerical evaluation of a certain degeneracy information function associated with the genetic code that the degeneracy of the codes is observed to be related to the optimization of this function.     

Evolution of the Genetic Triplet Code via Two Types of Doublet Codons

Explaining the apparent non-random codon distribution and the nature and number of amino acids in the ‘standard’ genetic code remains a challenge, despite the various hypotheses so far proposed. In this paper we propose a simple new hypothesis for code evolution involving a progression from singlet to doublet to triplet codons with a reading mechanism that moves three bases each step. We suggest that triplet codons gradually evolved from two types of ambiguous doublet codons, those in which the first two bases of each three-base window were read (‘prefix’ codons) and those in which the last two bases of each window were read (‘suffix’ codons). This hypothesis explains multiple features of the genetic code such as the origin of the pattern of four-fold degenerate and two-fold degenerate triplet codons, the origin of its error minimising properties, and why there are only 20 amino acids. Reviewing Editor: Dr. Laura Landweber An erratum to this article can be found at .     

Mitogenomes Reveal Alternative Initiation Codons and Lineage-Specific Gene Order Conservation in Echinoderms

The mitochondrial genetic code is much more varied than the standard genetic code. The invertebrate mitochondrial code, for instance, comprises six initiation codons, including five alternative start codons. However, only two initiation codons are known in the echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code, the canonical ATG and alternative GTG. Here, we analyzed 23 Asteroidea mitogenomes, including ten newly sequenced species and unambiguously identified at least two other start codons, ATT and ATC, both of which also initiate translation of mitochondrial genes in other invertebrates. These findings underscore the diversity of the genetic code and expand upon the suite of initiation codons among echinoderms to avoid erroneous annotations. Our analyses have also uncovered the remarkable conservation of gene order among asteroids, echinoids, and holothuroids, with only an interchange between two gene positions in asteroids over ∼500 Ma of echinoderm evolution.     

A content-centric organization of the genetic code

The codon table for the canonical genetic code can be rearranged in such a way that the code is divided into four quarters and two halves according to the variability of their GC and purine contents, respectively. For prokaryotic genomes, when the genomic GC content increases, their amino acid contents tend to be restricted to the GC-rich quarter and the purine-content insensitive half, where all codons are fourfold degenerate and relatively mutation-tolerant. Conversely, when the genomic GC content decreases, most of the codons retract to the AUrich quarter and the purine-content sensitive half; most of the codons not only remain encoding physicochemically diversified amino acids but also vary when transversion （between purine and pyrimidine） happens. Amino acids with sixfolddegenerate codons are distributed into all four quarters and across the two halves; their fourfold-degenerate codons are all partitioned into the purine-insensitive half in favorite of robustness against mutations. The features manifested in the rearranged codon table explain most of the intrinsic relationship between protein coding sequences （the informational content） and amino acid compositions （the functional content）. The renovated codon table is useful in predicting abundant amino acids and positioning the amino acids with related or distinct physicochemical properties.     

Construction of genetic code from evolutionary stability

The construction of the genetic code is investigated based on a stability principle. The concept and formulation of mutational deterioration (MD) of the genetic code is proposed. It is proved that the degeneracies of codon multiplets obey the rule to best resist MD. The MD for each ideal multiplet of codons is expressed by four parameters and it takes on a minimum value for real distributions of codons in the multiplet. Then the global mutational deterioration (GMD) of code table is calculated and the minimal code is deduced. The domain-like distribution of hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids on the genetic code is explained from the minimization of GMD. It is demonstrated that the standard code is approximately GMD-minimal. By introducing some constraints that are related to the initial condition of the system, we have deduced the standard genetic code from the minimization of GMD. The minimization shows the general trend of evolutionary process to some stable state while the constraints reflect a 'frozen accident.' Many deviant codon assignments are also explained through MD minimization assuming the changeable degrees of degeneracies for some multiplets. So, a possible answer to the question of "Why are synonymous codons and amino acids distributed in the code table just as they are?" is given.     

A mathematical model accounting for the organization in multiplets of the genetic code

A model using suitable mathematical operators in the crystal basis model of the genetic code is presented. This model retains a requirement for stability of the genetic code against misreading or translation errors. The main features (including number of encoded amino-acids, nucleotide content, and synonymous codons multiplet dimension) are described for mitochondrial and eukaryotic genetic codes.     

Possible evolutionary steps in the genetic code

In mammalian mitochondrial codes, fourfold codons wobble-pair with UNN anticodons so that U wobbles with U, C, A and G. Twofold pyrimidine-terminated codons pair with GNN and twofold purine-terminated codons pair with UNN. These properties enable a prediction to be made for evolution of the universal genetic code. It was postulated (1) that an archetypal code of 16 quartets coded for 15 amino acids. If this code used UNN anticodons, then duplication of tRNA genes, followed by mutations in the anticodons and aminoacylation sites, would give rise to the present universal code.     

The evolution of the mitochondrial genetic code in arthropods revisited

A variant of the invertebrate mitochondrial genetic code was previously identified in arthropods (Abascal et al. 2006a, PLoS Biol 4:e127) in which, instead of translating the AGG codon as serine, as in other invertebrates, some arthropods translate AGG as lysine. Here, we revisit the evolution of the genetic code in arthropods taking into account that (1) the number of arthropod mitochondrial genomes sequenced has triplicated since the original findings were published; (2) the phylogeny of arthropods has been recently resolved with confidence for many groups; and (3) sophisticated probabilistic methods can be applied to analyze the evolution of the genetic code in arthropod mitochondria. According to our analyses, evolutionary shifts in the genetic code have been more common than previously inferred, with many taxonomic groups displaying two alternative codes. Ancestral character-state reconstruction using probabilistic methods confirmed that the arthropod ancestor most likely translated AGG as lysine. Point mutations at tRNA-Lys and tRNA-Ser correlated with the meaning of the AGG codon. In addition, we identified three variables (GC content, number of AGG codons, and taxonomic information) that best explain the use of each of the two alternative genetic codes.