2000 Year-old ancient equids: an ancient-DNA lesson from pompeii remains

Ancient DNA extracted from 2000 year-old equine bones was examined in order to amplify mitochondrial and nuclear DNA fragments. A specific equine satellite-type sequence representing 3.7%-11% of the entire equine genome, proved to be a suitable target to address the question of the presence of aDNA in ancient bones. The PCR strategy designed to investigate this specific target also allowed us to calculate the molecular weight of amplifiable DNA fragments. Sequencing of a 370 bp DNA fragment of mitochondrial control region allowed the comparison of ancient DNA sequences with those of modern horses to assess their genetic relationship. The 16S rRNA mitochondrial gene was also examined to unravel the post-mortem base modification feature and to test the status of Pompeian equids taxon on the basis of a Mae III restriction site polymorphism.     

Double-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the diagnosis of osteopenia in ancient skeletal remains

Bone mineral density (BMD) assessed by double-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) accurately estimates the bone mass in living individuals, and is thus the method usually employed in the diagnosis and follow-up of osteopenia. It is preferred, in clinical settings, to the more invasive and destructive histomorphometrical assessment of trabecular bone mass in undecalcified bone samples. This study was performed in order to examine the value of DEXA-assessed BMD at the proximal end of the right tibia, either alone or in combination with the cortico-medullary index at the midshaft point of the right tibia (CMI), in the diagnosis of osteopenia in a prehistoric sample composed of 95 pre-Hispanic individuals from Gran Canaria. Age at death could be estimated in 34 cases. Diagnosis of osteopenia was performed by histomorphometrical assessment of trabecular bone mass (TBM) in an undecalcified bone section of a small portion of the proximal epiphysis of the right tibia. A high prevalence of osteopenia was found among the population of Gran Canaria. Both TBM and BMD were significantly lower in the older individuals than in younger ones, and BMD was also significantly lower in female individuals. BMD was moderately correlated with TBM (r = +0.51); the correlation was higher if CMI was included (multiple r = +0.615). BMD values lower than 0.7 g/cm2 showed a high specificity (>93%) at excluding normal TBM values. These methods were prospectively applied in a further sample of 21 right tibiae from Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and El Hierro. The results were similar to those obtained in the larger sample. Thus, DEXA-assessed BMD combined with CMI (noninvasive procedures) may be useful in detecting osteopenia in ancient populations.     

New studies of post-Pleistocene human skeletal remains from the Rift Valley,Kenya

Prehistoric human crania from Bromhead's Site, Willey's Kopje, Makalia Burial Site, Nakuru, and other localities in the Eastern Rift Valley of Kenya are reassessed using measurements and a multivariate statistical approach. Materials available for comparison include series of Bushman and Hottentot crania, South and East African Negroes, and Egyptians. Up to 34 cranial measurements taken on these series are utilized to construct three multiple discriminant frameworks, each of which can assign modern individuals to a correct group with considerable accuracy. When the prehistoric crania are classified with the help of these discriminants, results indicate that several of the skulls are best grouped with modern Negroes. This is especially clear in the case of individuals from Bromhead's Site, Willey's Kopje, and Nakuru, and the evidence hardly suggests post-Pleistocene domination of the Rift and surrounding territory by “Mediterranean” Caucasoids, as has been claimed. Recent linguistic and archaeological findings are also reviewed, and these seem to support application of the term Nilotic Negro to the early Rift populations.     

Nondestructive sampling of human skeletal remains yields ancient nuclear and mitochondrial DNA

Museum curators and living communities are sometimes reluctant to permit ancient DNA (aDNA) studies of human skeletal remains because the extraction of aDNA usually requires the destruction of at least some skeletal material. Whether these views stem from a desire to conserve precious materials or an objection to destroying ancestral remains, they limit the potential of aDNA research. To help address concerns about destructive analysis and to minimize damage to valuable specimens, we describe a nondestructive method for extracting DNA from ancient human remains. This method can be used with both teeth and bone, but it preserves the structural integrity of teeth much more effectively than that of bone. Using this method, we demonstrate that it is possible to extract both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA from human remains dating between 300 BC and 1600 AD. Importantly, the method does not expose the remains to hazardous chemicals, allowing them to be safely returned to curators, custodians, and/or owners of the samples. We successfully amplified mitochondrial DNA from 90% of the individuals tested, and we were able to analyze 1-9 nuclear loci in 70% of individuals. We also show that repeated nondestructive extractions from the same tooth can yield amplifiable mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. The high success rate of this method and its ability to yield DNA from samples spanning a wide geographic and temporal range without destroying the structural integrity of the sampled material may make possible the genetic study of skeletal collections that are not available for destructive analysis.     

Demographic data on the remains of ancient Egyptians

A mortality and sex ratio survey has been done on both the osteological and the mummy collections from the Gebelen and Asiut cemeteries of Upper Egypt. The results show a fairly low average age of death for adults of about 36 years and a sex differentiation in mortality, that is higher for young females. This fact may be correlated with childbirth.     

Exploring sex differences in diets and activity patterns through dental and skeletal studies in populations from ancient Corinth,Greece

Sex and temporal differences are assessed in relation to dietary habits and activity patterns in three ancient populations from Corinth, Greece. The skeletal sample spans time from the Geometric to the Early Byzantine Period (9th c. BCE-5th c. CE). Dental caries and tooth wear have been proven to be reliable dietary indicators. Similarly, spinal osteoarthritis, spinal facet remodeling and Schmorl’s nodes, have been used to infer activity patterns.     

Palaeopathology and genes: Investigating the genetics of infectious diseases in excavated human skeletal remains and mummies from past populations

The aim of this paper is to review the use of genetics in palaeomicrobiology, and to highlight the importance of understanding past diseases. Palaeomicrobiology is the study of disease pathogens in skeletal and mummified remains from archaeological contexts. It has revolutionarised our understanding of health in the past by enabling a deeper knowledge of the origins and evolution of many diseases that have shaped us as a species. Bacterial diseases explored include tuberculosis, leprosy, bubonic plague, typhoid, syphilis, endemic and epidemic typhus, trench fever, and Helicobacter pylori. Viral diseases discussed include influenza, hepatitis B, human papilloma virus (HPV), human T-cell lymphotrophic virus (HTLV-1) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Parasitic diseases investigated include malaria, leishmaniasis, Chagas' disease, roundworm, whipworm, pinworm, Chinese liver fluke, fleas and lice. Through a better understanding of disease origins and their evolution, we can place into context how many infectious diseases are changing over time, and so help us estimate how they may change in the future.     

Mechanical determinants of bone form: insights from skeletal remains

Analysis of skeletal remains from humans living in the past forms an important complement to observational and experimental studies of living humans and animal models. Including earlier humans in such analyses increases the range of variation in both behavior and body size and shape that are represented, and can provide insights into the adaptive potential of the modern human skeleton. I review here a variety of studies of archaeological and paleontological remains that have investigated differences in skeletal structure from a mechanical perspective, focusing in particular on diaphyseal strength of the limb bones. Several conclusions can be drawn from these studies: 1) there has been a decline in overall skeletal strength relative to body size over the course of human evolution that has become progressively steeper in recent millennia, probably due to increased sedentism and technological advancement; 2) differences in pelvic structure and hip mechanical loadings affect femoral shape; 3) activity patterns affect overall strength and shape of both the lower and upper limb bones; and 4) responsiveness to changes in mechanical loading varies between skeletal features (e.g., articulations versus diaphyses) and by age.     

The study of dental occlusion in ancient skeletal remains from Mallorca (Spain): A new approach based on dental clinical practice

Occlusal characteristics, fundamental to assess the presence of malocclusion, have been often unexplored in bioarchaeological analyses. This is largely due to the fragmented condition of the skeletal remains. By applying a method that considers dental and maxillary features useful to evaluate occlusion in ancient fragmentary material, the purpose of this work is to define the occlusal features and explore the causes of malocclusion in a mediaeval population from Mallorca. The findings of this study suggest that normocclusion was present in ca. 60% of the individuals (N = 31), and that some characteristics, such as molar relationship, were slightly different from those of modern populations. The analysis of the occlusal features revealed for example that open-bite was absent in 85% of the sample, posterior open-bite was completely absent and overbite and overjet were normal in around 90% of the individuals. Statistically significant correlations between canine and molar relationships and between molar relationship and dental wear of the superior and inferior canines and incisors were observed. In addition, wear could affect the curve of Spee. All these findings strengthen the hypothesis that in ancient times malocclusion was not as generalized as in modern times. Although the factors that lead to malocclusion throughout centuries could have several causes, we suggest that in this population dental wear, which is strongly associated with the diet, was the fundamental causing factor.     

Reconstructing ancient ecological conditions from insect remains; some problems and an experimental approach

• 1 Analysis of insect ‘death assemblages’ from ancient natural and anthropogenic deposits can provide valuable information about conditions in the past but the theoretical basis of such investigations is weak, especially with respect to the quantification of habitats on archaeological sites.
• 2 Evidence is presented for the existence of a transported component, termed ‘background fauna’, in death assemblages, as well as the remains of insects derived from the immediate surroundings.
• 3 The background component is derived principally from airborne insects and from bird droppings and may seriously detract from the accuracy of reconstructions of past ecological conditions. Factors affecting its relative importance are discussed.
• 4 As well as including species from distant habitats, the background fauna may be biased in favour of species from temporary habitats.
• 5 Some solutions to the problems presented by the background fauna are discussed. A high proportion of a species or ecological group will usually be evidence that its habitat existed near to the deposit enclosing the fauna, although there may be exceptions.
• 6 The structure of the background rain of insects has probably altered with changes in town and countryside brought about by man. Attempts to recognize background fauna in ancient assemblages must take account of this.
• 7 Many ancient assemblages, especially if small, will give no useful ecological information.

     

Estimating mortality in skeletal populations: influence of the growth rate on the interpretation of levels and trends during the transition to agriculture

Traditional paleodemographic methods of estimating mortality have been based on unrealistic assumptions about the prevalence of closed and stationary populations. When a living closed population was growing, the mean age at death of its skeletal survivors will be shifted below its true life expectancy. For declining populations, the mean age at death will be higher than true underlying life expectancy at birth. The faster the rate of growth, the larger and more curvilinear is the displacement. Mortality estimates can only be extracted from skeletal populations via an independent estimate of the growth rate. Fertility levels, however, can be estimated directly. The empirical importance of growth rate-dependent mortality estimates is demonstrated by reinterpreting mean-age-at-death data from several populations before and after the agricultural revolution; with detailed consideration given to the Old World populations of Acsadi and Nemeskeri and a New World population from central Illinois.     

Cranial variation in prehistoric human skeletal remains from the Marianas

Nonmetric cranial variation and facial flatness of the Pacific and circum-Pacific populations are investigated. The peoples of the Marianas, eastern Polynesia and Hawaii form a cluster and show affinities in terms of nonmetric cranial variation with the Southeast and East Asians rather than with the Jomon-Ainu, a view which is widely supported by others. Facial flatness analysis also indicates that Polynesians have different patterns of facial prominence as compared with the Jomon-Ainu. These results increase the difficulty of accepting the Jomon-Pacific cluster proposed by Brace and his coworkers. Although genetic and nonmetric cranial variation reveal relatively close relationships, the Mariana skeletons are markedly different in facial flatness and limb bone morphology from those of Polynesians. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:399–410, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Neonate human remains: a window of opportunity to the molecular study of ancient syphilis

Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis can be a useful tool in bacterial disease diagnosis in human remains. However, while the recovery of Mycobacterium spp. has been widely successful, several authors report unsuccessful results regarding ancient treponemal DNA, casting doubts on the usefulness of this technique for the diagnosis of ancient syphilis. Here, we present results from an analysis of four newborn specimens recovered from the crypt of "La Ermita de la Soledad" (XVI-XVII centuries), located in the province of Huelva in the southwest of Spain. We extracted and analyzed aDNA in three independent laboratories, following specific procedures generally practiced in the aDNA field, including cloning of the amplified DNA fragments and sequencing of several clones. This is the most ancient case, reported to date, from which detection of DNA from T. pallidum subspecies pallidum has been successful in more than one individual, and we put forward a hypothesis to explain this result, taking into account the course of the disease in neonate individuals.