Mapping of key bee flora of upper Gangetic region of India – a palynological assessment through regional honeys

Fifty‐one regional honey samples, collected mainly from Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh districts, were studied to determine the pollen composition. Pollen spectra of the local honeys varied according to the vegetation type utilized by the bees within this floristically diverse region. Eight pollen types from Uttarakhand and seven from Uttar Pradesh were the predominant pollen types in honey and included both local naturalized flora as well as cultivated crops. The investigation revealed that in addition to already known bee forage (e.g. Brassica, Coriandrum, and Litchi) some other species including Eucalyptus, Callistemon that are planted for social forestry programs, are also heavily utilized as pollen and nectar sources by honey bees in urban and semi urban areas. Naturalized flora including Myrica, Rumex, Erigeron are also utilized and therefore are important for apiculture in these regions.     

Butterfly (Order: Lepidoptera) species Richness,diversity and distribution in different localities of Battagram,Pakistan

Butterflies are the beautiful creatures and need to be conserved. The present survey was conducted to explore the biodiversity of butterflies of District Battagram Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan, from March to September 2021. During this study the butterflies were collected from 2 Tehsil including 12 localities using line transect method. A total of 572 specimens were collected from all localities. Species identified were belonging to 3 families and 7 genera. The species were Cynthia cardui. Danaus chrysippus, Junonia orithya, Papilio demoleus, Papilio polytes, Colias croceus, Pieris ajaka, Pontia daplidice and Pieris napi. In the recorded 9 species Papilo demoleus was the most common species of the district Battagram and the most rear specie was Pieris ajaka during this study. The current study is new detailed work on the butterflies from district Battagram . It is concluded from the present study that district Battagram is rich in flora and provide a much suitable environment and place for biodiversity to insects. As this study is the first survey of butterflies population in the district and recorded rich diversity, so more explorative work is needed for its population estimation and specie abundance.     

Dominant Pollen Types Recovered From commercial Louisiana honeys

Microscopical pollen analyses of 54 commercial honey samples collected from the major beekeeping areas of Louisiana during 1967–68 showed six dominant pollen types (a dominant type considered as one contributing over 45% of the total grains counted per sample and denoting a unifloral honey). The dominant pollen types and the “ bee plant ” species associated with each pollen type are identified and described. The pollen types are illustrated with light photomicrographs. The pollen types are in order of importance:Trifolium repens, white clover;Rubus spp., blackberry and/or dewberry;Berchemia scandens, rattan vine;Salix spp., willow; Asteraceae, Sunflower family; and Sapiumsebiferum,Chinese tallow tree. White clover and willow were the largest unifloral honey producers in a region including the floodplain and delta of the Mississippi River, and the floodplain of the Red River (the most productive beekeeping area of Louisiana); blackberry and/or dewberry were most significant in the longleaf pine flat woods and mixed hardwoods in the uplands section on the east side of the Mississippi River; rattan vine was most important in west-central Louisiana in an area consisting originally of pine-oak-hickory uplands and longleaf pine flat woods; white clover appeared most important in the prairie region of southwest Louisiana.     

GM risk assessment: Pollen carriage from Brassica napus to B. rapa varies widely between pollinators

Characterizing insect pollen carriage between closely related plant species is especially challenging where source species possess morphologically identical pollen and share many pollinators in common. Here, we use an SNP-based assay using the plant DNA barcoding locus matK to characterize pollen carriage between cultivated Brassica napus and wild Brassica rapa in three sites across southern England. The assay differentiated B. napus and B. rapa pollen carried by honey bees (Apis melifera), bumblebees (Bombus spp.), mining bees (Andrena spp.) and hoverflies (Syrphidae) captured on B. napus plants 1–2 m from wild B. rapa, and on B. rapa plants at various distances from the crop . Apis individuals foraging on B. rapa and carrying B. napus pollen were rarely found beyond 10 m from the crop. However, Bombus and Andrena individuals captured on B. rapa occasionally carried crop pollen up to 300 m from the source field. Hoverflies carried less pollen overall but featured high proportions of B. napus pollen even at the most distant capture points. We predict that different pollinator species will evoke markedly different patterns of interspecific hybrid formation. We conclude that more exhaustive surveys of this kind will help parameterize future mechanistic models to predict the distribution of hybrids between Genetically Modified B. napus and B. rapa on a landscape scale.     

Using DNA Metabarcoding to Identify the Floral Composition of Honey: A New Tool for Investigating Honey Bee Foraging Preferences

Identifying the floral composition of honey provides a method for investigating the plants that honey bees visit. We compared melissopalynology, where pollen grains retrieved from honey are identified morphologically, with a DNA metabarcoding approach using the rbcL DNA barcode marker and 454-pyrosequencing. We compared nine honeys supplied by beekeepers in the UK. DNA metabarcoding and melissopalynology were able to detect the most abundant floral components of honey. There was 92% correspondence for the plant taxa that had an abundance of over 20%. However, the level of similarity when all taxa were compared was lower, ranging from 22–45%, and there was little correspondence between the relative abundance of taxa found using the two techniques. DNA metabarcoding provided much greater repeatability, with a 64% taxa match compared to 28% with melissopalynology. DNA metabarcoding has the advantage over melissopalynology in that it does not require a high level of taxonomic expertise, a greater sample size can be screened and it provides greater resolution for some plant families. However, it does not provide a quantitative approach and pollen present in low levels are less likely to be detected. We investigated the plants that were frequently used by honey bees by examining the results obtained from both techniques. Plants with a broad taxonomic range were detected, covering 46 families and 25 orders, but a relatively small number of plants were consistently seen across multiple honey samples. Frequently found herbaceous species were Rubus fruticosus, Filipendula ulmaria, Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium spp., Brassica spp. and the non-native, invasive, Impatiens glandulifera. Tree pollen was frequently seen belonging to Castanea sativa, Crataegus monogyna and species of Malus, Salix and Quercus. We conclude that although honey bees are considered to be supergeneralists in their foraging choices, there are certain key species or plant groups that are particularly important in the honey bees environment. The reasons for this require further investigation in order to better understand honey bee nutritional requirements. DNA metabarcoding can be easily and widely used to investigate floral visitation in honey bees and can be adapted for use with other insects. It provides a starting point for investigating how we can better provide for the insects that we rely upon for pollination.     

Nectar and pollen sources for honeybees in Kafrelsheikh province of northern Egypt

This study was conducted at the apiary of the Beekeeping Research Section at the Sakha Agricultural Research Station, ARC, Kafrelsheikh, and other apiaries in Kafrelsheikh province, during two successive years 2015 and 2016. The study aimed to survey nectar and pollen floral resources in Kafrelsheikh province. Ninty seven plant species belonging to 33 families were recorded as nectar sources, and 82 plant species belonging to 36 families were recorded as pollen sources during the whole year. The largest amount of monthly trapped pollen was obtained during May followed by August. It can be concluded that, beekeepers in Kafrelsheikh province can harvest good honey yield at the end of blooming seasons of citrus (Citrus spp.) during March and April, Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) during May and June, loofah (Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.) during June to October, cotton (Gossypium spp.) during July and August, and banana (Musa spp.) during August and September. They also, could be trapping pollen loads collected from faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) during January to March, date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) during March and April, Egyptian clover during May and June, summer seed watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. colothynthoides L.) during June and July, loofah and maize (Zea mays L.) during June to November.     

Pollen analyses of honey from Finland

The present study reports results of qualitative melissopalynological analyses of Finnish honey between the years 2000–2007 and changes in its pollen content from the period 1960–2007. Altogether the pollen content of 734 honey samples was analysed with an average of 415 pollen grains counted from a sample. Pollen of Trifolium repens type, Rubus spp., Salix spp. and the Brassicaceae family were present in more than 90% of the samples, and these pollen types were also found in the highest proportions. Annual variation in the relative amounts of the most numerous pollen types could be as high as 10%. On the basis of the pollen spectra of the honey samples, four regions of forage plants for bees could be identified in Finland. In the period between 1960 and 2007, the most marked change observed was that the percentage of the Trifolium spp. pollen type had decreased from 70% to 10%, while the proportions of Brassicaceae and Rosaceae pollen types showed a corresponding increase.     

Pollen diets and niche overlap of honey bees and native bees in protected areas

The decline of both managed and wild bee populations has been extensively reported for over a decade now, with growing concerns amongst the scientific community. Also, evidence is growing that both managed and feral honey bees may exacerbate threats to wild bees. In Australia, there are over 1600 native bee species and introduced European honey bees (Apis mellifera) have established throughout most landscapes. There is a major gap in knowledge of the interactions between honey bees and native bees in Australian landscapes, especially floral resource use.Here we report on the pollen diets of wild bees in protected areas of coastal heathland, an ecosystem characterised by mass flowering in late winter and spring. We sampled bees within three sites and DNA metabarcoding was used to compare the pollen diets of honey bees and native bees. We recorded 2, 772 bees in total, with 13 genera and 18 described species identified. Apis mellifera was the most common species across all locations, accounting for 42% of all bees collected. Native bee genera included eusocial Tetragonula (stingless bees) (37%), and semi-social Exoneura and Braunsapis (19.8% combined). Metabarcoding data revealed both Tetragonula and honey bees have wide foraging patterns, and the bipartite network overall was highly generalised (H₂’ = 0.24). Individual honey bees carried pollen of 7–29 plant species, and significantly more species than all other bees. We found niche overlap in the diets of honey bees and native bees generally (0.42), and strongest overlap with stingless bees (0.70) and species of Braunsapis (0.62). A surprising finding was that many species carried pollen from Restionaceae and Cyperaceae, families generally considered to be predominantly wind-pollinated in Australia. Our study showed introduced honey bee use of resources overlaps with that of native bees in protected heathlands, but there are clear differences in their diet preferences.     

Wild food plants traditionally consumed in the area of Bologna (Emilia Romagna region,Italy)

Background

The Quilombola communities of Ipiranga and Gurugi, located in Atlantic Rainforest in Southern of Paraíba state, have stories that are interwoven throughout time. The practice of meliponicultura has been carried out for generations in these social groups and provides an elaborate ecological knowledge based on native stingless bees, the melliferous flora and the management techniques used. The traditional knowledge that Quilombola have of stingless bees is of utmost importance for the establishment of conservation strategies for many species.

Methods

To deepen study concerning the ecological knowledge of the beekeepers, the method of participant observation together with structured and semi-structured interviews was used, as well as the collection of entomological and botanical categories of bees and plants mentioned. With the aim of recording the knowledge related to meliponiculture previously exercised by the residents, the method of the oral story was employed.

Results and discussion

Results show that the informants sampled possess knowledge of twelve categories of stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini), classified according to morphological, behavioral and ecological characteristics. Their management techniques are represented by the making of traditional cortiço and the melliferous flora is composed of many species predominant in the Atlantic Rainforest. From recording the memories and recollections of the individuals, it was observed that an intricate system of beliefs has permeated the keeping of uruçu bees (Melipona scutellaris) for generations.

Conclusion

According to management techniques used by beekeepers, the keeping of stingless bees in the communities is considered a traditional activity that is embedded within a network of ecological knowledge and beliefs accumulated by generations over time, and is undergoing a process of transformation that provides new meanings to such knowledge, as can be observed in the practices of young people.     

Monitoring small and arboreal mammals by camera traps: effectiveness and applications

Camera trapping has been widely applied to studies of medium to large terrestrial mammals, but its application to small arboreal mammals has hardly been tested. We employed camera trapping and other conventional monitoring methods during a mammal survey in a Site of Community Importance located within the Adda North Regional Park (Lombardy, Italy). Camera trapping was particularly successful for monitoring arboreal mammals, allowing the first detection of presence of the invasive grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in an area occupied by indigenous red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) and the collection of a large amount of data on squirrels and common dormice (Muscardinus avellanarius). When triggered, cameras were set to record short video clips (10 to 40 s). More than 400 events were recorded and analysed, mainly from the autumn and winter months. The daily activity pattern of both species displayed a trend from two to three activity peaks in summer to a unimodal pattern in winter, with the peaks of the two species temporally separated. Camera trapping could be a useful method also when applied to monitoring small mammals, particularly endangered arboreal or invasive alien species. For instance, the monitoring of the spread of S. carolinensis is particularly important, where the early detection of new population can be crucial for the conservation of indigenous European species. Camera trapping can be an effective addition to traditional survey methods. It provides a simple non-invasive technique for collecting a large amount of data per device with limited human effort.     

Could learning of pollen odours by honey bees (Apis mellifera) play a role in their foraging behaviour?

Abstract. The role of pollen odour cues in the foraging behaviour of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) is poorly understood. Using classical conditioning of the proboscis extension response, in which bees learn to associate an odour with a sucrose reward, the present study tests whether odours of bee-collected pollen from the hive environment or odours of fresh pollen on the anthers of flowers could be used in pollen foraging. Honey bees efficiently learn odours from field-bean (Vicia faba) bee-collected pollen and oilseed-rape (Brassica napus) bee-collected pollen, hand-collected pollen, anthers and whole flowers, demonstrating that honey bees can learn pollen odours associatively in biologically realistic concentrations. Honey bees learn pollen odours of oilseed rape better than field bean and, although they generalize these two odours, they easily distinguish between them in discrimination tests, suggesting that pollen odours may be used in species recognition/discrimination. There is little evidence that honey bees can recognize whole flowers based on previous experience of bee-collected pollen odour. However, they generalize the odours of oilseed-rape anthers and whole flowers, suggesting that anther pollen in situ may play a more prominent role than bee-collected pollen in foraging behaviour.     

Palynological evaluation of selected honeys from Romania

Fifty-four honey samples collected over two consecutive harvest seasons (2009–2010) from different floristic areas of Romania were analysed. A melissopalynological analysis including qualitative and quantitative analyses was carried out in order to identify the principal pollen types in Romanian honeys and therefore, the important plants exploited by Apis mellifera in this country. Seventy-seven pollen types from 35 botanical families were identified. The main pollen forms were: Brassica napus-type, Tilia, Helianthus annuus, Robinia pseudoacacia, Prunus, Castanea sativa, Fragaria-type and Plantago-type. Honey samples were classified as: acacia honey (Robinia pseudoacacia), lime honey (Tilia), rape honey (Brassica napus-type), sunflower honey (Helianthus annuus), cherry honey (Prunus). Three of them were honeydew honeys whereas the others were all polyfloral. The results from this study can be used as a palynological baseline data of Romanian artisanal honeys.     

Floral resources and risk of exposure to pesticides for Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides Lepeletier 1836 in a Cerrado of São Paulo (Brazil)

Honey and bee bread samples from storage pots of Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides were collected monthly from April 2015 to May 2016 in the Mogi Guaçu Biological Reserve (22º 10? S, 47º 11? W). The flora in the site is characteristic of the Atlantic Forest with preserved areas of savanna-like vegetation surrounded by commercial forests, orchards and various crops of exotic and native plants. Samples were analysed with the use of melissopalynological methodology and 46 pollen types from 38 genera and 30 families were identified in 25 honey samples. Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapindaceae showed the greatest pollen richness in honey. Predominant nectariferous pollen types were Anadenanthera, Cordia, Eucalyptus, Mimosa scabrella, Schefflera, Sida, Serjania and Vernonia. Twenty-eight types of pollen from 21 genera and 19 families were identified in 22 bee bread samples. Fabaceae, Asteraceae and Myrtaceae showed the highest pollen richness. Anadenanthera, Cecropia, Eucalyptus, Melastomataceae, Mimosa scabrella, Mimosa verrucosa and Myrcia were the most frequent polliniferous pollen types. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that honey and pollen samples formed two main groups of similarity, mainly due to Eucalyptus’ nectar and pollen of Melastomataceae, respectively. Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides collected nectar and pollen from the preserved areas as well as in the secondary and ‘ruderal’ vegetation and in cultivated forests/fields, suggesting their importance as pollinators both of native flora and exotic species. The use of trophic resources of plants grown with pesticides is a concern for the conservation of these species of bee and should be better studied.     

Meligethes aeneus oviposition preferences,larval parasitism rate and species composition of parasitoids on Brassica nigra,Raphanus sativus and Eruca sativa compared with on Brassica napus

The trap crop strategy is based on host plant discrimination by pests and their parasitoids, which may respond differently to various host plant cues, thus affecting their respective population distributions. We conducted a three-year study to compare the responses of the most damaging pest of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), the pollen beetle (Meligethes aeneus Fab.), and its hymenopteran parasitoids to various potential trap crops: Brassica nigra L., Raphanus sativus var. olifera Pers. and Eruca sativa Mill. with that to B. napus. We recorded their abundance, oviposition preferences and the species composition of the parasitoids.Our results show that oviposition rates of the pollen beetle and its parasitoids as well the species composition of the parasitoids varies with plant species. We discuss the potential of these plant species, especially B. nigra, to enhance the natural control of the beetle by fostering several parasitoid species. The species composition of the parasitoids on different host plants compared with on B. napus is presented for the first time. In addition to trapping pests, the trap crops could also act as parasitoid banks, enhancing natural control of the pest through providing suitable hosts for natural enemies, without increasing the population growth of the next generation of pests.     

Comparative epidemiology of porcine circovirus type 3 in pigs with different clinical presentations

Background

Seroprevalence of hepatitis C in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan was determined by screening blood samples of expectant mothers seeking antenatal care in gynecological units of district hospitals. The rationale behind this cohort study was that the availability of free-of-cost antenatal care in district hospitals brings expectant mothers from a broader geographical range in each district and thus provides a large sample-size of healthy pregnant women of known medical history for Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) surveillance. The study was carried out along a south west to north east transact of five districts, Kohat-Peshawar-Nowshera-Charsadda-Mardan, with the central district Peshawar and outer districts Kohat and Mardan bordering northern mountainous ranges of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. This distribution of districts along the transact allowed the study to gauge the impact of proximity to remote highland communities on the HCV burden of visiting pregnant women tested for HCV infection.

Methods

The cohort study randomly selected 150 pregnant women visiting each hospital for serological screening for Anti-HCV carried out by ELISA assay. The feasibility of ICT and RT-PCR assays for HCV prevalence was also examined in the present study.

Results

With a total of 750 blood specimen screened, the results of ELISA tests revealed a staggering 5.9% frequency of Anti-HCV in the five districts with the frequency of ELISA positive cases ranging from 3.3% in Nowshera, 4.7% in Charsadda, 6.0% in Peshawar, 6.7% in Kohat, and 8.7% in Mardan. The relatively higher frequencies of Anti-HCV cases among hospital visiting pregnant women in Peshawar, Kohat and Mardan were consistent with the proximity of these hospitals to the highland communities in the bordering mountain ranges. Compared to 44 Anti-HCV positive serologic specimens detected by ELISA, only 26 and 10 blood specimens were tested positive by ICT and PCR methods, respectively. Our study validates ELISA as a reliable diagnostic technique for both acute and chronic HCV infection.

Conclusion

The HCV infection rate of 5.9% in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province clearly exceeds the HCV prevalence rates reported for other regions in Pakistan, making this province a hotspot of HCV infection in the country.

     

Floral Preference of Melipona eburnea Friese (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in a Colombian Andean Region

Melipona eburnea Friese is a stingless bee kept in some regions of Colombia, where it is reported to be vulnerable to extinction due to habitat disturbance. To contribute to raising conservation strategies, the aim of this study was to identify the floral preferences of this species using melissopalynological analysis. A total of 31 pollen pot samples and 37 honey samples were taken from March 2009 through March 2010 from four colonies in Fusagasuga, Colombia. We found 92 pollen types: 17 from pollen pot samples, 39 from honey samples (indicating the sources of nectar), and 36 in both types of samples. The most frequent pollen types in the pollen pot samples were Myrcia type (100%), Eucalyptus globulus (96.9%), and Fraxinus uhdei (96.9%). The most frequent pollen types in honey samples were E. globulus (97.4%) and Myrcia type (94.9%). The pollen types corresponded mainly to native plants (68%), trees (44.5%), plants whose sexual system is hermaphroditic (56.5%), and plants with inflorescences (76.2%). The most frequent shapes of the flowers were brush-like (type Myrtaceae) and dish-like (type Asteraceae), and the preferred flower colors were white or cream (52.2%). In general, we found that M. eburnea showed a strong preference for trees of the family Myrtaceae to obtain nectar and pollen, including native and introduced species. Some other families are contributing significantly, such as Melastomataceae for pollen collection and Asteraceae for nectar. These results highlight the key plant species for the diet of M. eburnea.     

Distributions of invasive weed Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) in the University campus Peshawar KPK

A very interesting survey was performed to measure the distribution of invasive Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) weed in the University Campus, Peshawar, the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The University Campus comprised on; The University of Peshawar, Islamia College University, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Pakistan Forest Institute and the New Developmental Research Farm. In these selected areas Parthenium weed distribution was measured in particular the academic, residential and research farm. Moreover, the survey also investigated the impact of parthenium weed upon native weeds flora inside the University campus. A 1m² quadrat was used to collect the data. During the survey, a total of 32 weeds species were recorded belonging to 18 different families and 32 genera, the life cycle of 23 weeds were annual while 9 weeds have a perennial. The data were recorded on absolute density (%), relative density (%), absolute frequency (%), relative frequency (%) and importance values (%) of parthenium weed and others flora. The collected data show that parthenium weed was the most dominant species having 76.8 m^?2 plants density in the NDF and (32.0 m^?2) at Islamia College University. However, the highest frequency (100%) of Parthenium was observed for The University of Agriculture, while minimum (80%) occurred in the Agronomy field. A More, the relative frequency of Parthenium was maximum (25%) in Islamia College; whereas, it's minimum (12.9%) at Agronomy field. Finally, the Importance Value of Parthenium indicates the highest (45.98%) at Dairy Farm followed by (40.33%) at the Horticulture field's area. In short, the Parthenium weed becomes more problematic and replaces all the native flora in the non-crop area specially Dicanthium annulatum L. a native grass species on the ridges of the field being replaced by parthenium. Due to no proper management and high growth rate, nowadays it becomes like a superweed in the KPK and especially in Pakistan. So, the management of Parthenium weed requires the call attention from the Govt. policymaker and proper quarantine inspection to conserve the native flora and field crops to get maximum crop yield.     

Geographical distribution and molecular detection of Nosema ceranae from indigenous honey bees of Saudi Arabia

The aim of the study was to detect the infection level of honey bees with Nosema apis and/or Nosema ceranae using microscopic and molecular analysis from indigenous honeybee race of eight Saudi Arabian geographical regions. A detailed survey was conducted and fifty apiaries were chosen at random from these locations. Infection level was determined both by microscope and Multiplex-PCR and data were analyzed using bioinformatics tools and phylogenetic analysis. Result showed that N. ceranae was the only species infecting indigenous honeybee colonies in Saudi Arabia. As determined by microscope, Nosema spores were found to be in 20.59% of total samples colonies, while 58% of the samples evaluated by PCR were found to be positive for N. ceranae, with the highest prevalence in Al-Bahah, a tropical wet and dry climatic region, whereas low prevalence was found in the regions with hot arid climate. Honeybees from all eight locations surveyed were positive for N. ceranae. This is the first report about the N. ceranae detection, contamination level and distribution pattern in Saudi Arabia.     

Generalized fly-pollination in Ceropegia ampliata (Apocynaceae�CAsclepiadoideae): the role of trapping hairs in pollen export and receipt

Flowers of most species in the genus Ceropegia have elaborate adaptations to trap pollinating flies. Flies are trapped within a bulbous base of the flower after moving through an elongated corolla tube that is frequently lined with stiff hairs. When these hairs wilt after several days, insects held in the bulbous chamber at the base of the corolla tube are released. Despite such complex adaptations for trapping pollinators, key aspects of the pollination ecology including the identity of pollinators, presence or absence of nectar rewards, duration of pollinator trapping, and pollination success remain undescribed for most Ceropegia species. Importantly, no studies have empirically tested the role that trapping hairs may have on pollen export and receipt. We documented the pollination biology of Ceropegia ampliata in two natural populations and found that C. ampliata can be regarded as a generalist, being pollinated by flies from at least four families (Tachinidae, Sarcophagidae, Muscidae, and Lauxaniidae). The duration of the trapping phase lasted 2?C5?days and flowers produce small quantities of nectar. Pollination success was highly variable but generally low with occasional peaks suggesting that flies are likely to visit this species sporadically. Flowers that had already proceeded beyond the trapping phase generally had a significantly greater number of pollinaria removed than flowers that were still in the trapping phase, probably reflecting the longer exposure to pollinators. In contrast we found no differences in pollinarium removal between flowers with trapping hairs present and flowers with hairs experimentally disabled. The role of trapping hairs in the pollination success of C. ampliata therefore remains uncertain although we propose, on the basis of this experiment, that trapping may be an adaptation to enhance female success through pollen deposition rather than pollen export. Given the low rates of natural pollen deposition, an experiment with a large number of replicates is required to test this hypothesis in Ceropegia.