Comparison of Acyrthosiphon pisum (Homoptera: Aphididae) and Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) as prey for the development and survival of Chrysopa pallens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

The effects of two different prey species on the pre-imaginal development and survival of the green lacewing, Chrysopa pallens were determined under laboratory conditions. The developmental duration from first instar to adult emergence was shorter when larvae were fed on Acyrthosiphon pisum (22.56 ± 0.39 d) than on Frankliniella occidentalis (29 ± 0.45 d). The survival rate of lacewings from first instar to adult emergence was 22.6% higher when they were fed on A. pisum than when fed on F. occidentalis. The possible implications of these findings are applicable to mass-rearing of C. pallens and for understanding predator's biology and survival capacity in the presence of prey species evaluated and could be used in the development of an effective biological control program.     

Bt Proteins Have No Detrimental Effects on Larvae of the Green Lacewing, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysopa pallens</Emphasis> (Rambur) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

Biosafety of a genetically modified crop is required to be assessed prior to its commercialization. For this, a suitable artificial diet was developed and used to establish a dietary exposure test for assessing the toxicity of midgut-active Bt insecticidal proteins on Chrysopa pallens (Rambur). Subsequently, this dietary exposure test was used to evaluate the toxicity of the proteins Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ah, Cry1Ca, Cry1F, Cry2Aa, Cry2Ab, and Vip3Aa on C. pallens larvae. Temporal stability, bioactivity, and the intake of the insecticidal proteins were confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and a sensitive-insect bioassay. The life history characteristics, such as survival, pupation, adult emergence, 7-day larval weight, larval developmental time, and emerged male and female fresh weights remained unaffected, when C. pallens were fed the pure artificial diet (negative control) and the artificial diets containing 200 μg/g of each purified protein: Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ah, Cry1Ca, Cry1F, Cry2Aa, Cry2Ab, or Vip3Aa. On the contrary, all of the life history characteristics of C. pallens larvae were adversely affected when fed artificial diet containing boric acid (positive control). The results demonstrate that diets containing the tested concentrations of Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ah, Cry1Ca, Cry1F, Cry2Aa, Cry2Ab, and Vip3Aa have null effects on C. pallens larvae. The outcome indicates that genetically modified crops expressing the tested Bt proteins are safe for the lacewing, C. pallens.     

矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂的安全性评价

【目的】矿物油乳剂因其安全性好、杀虫谱广、不易产生抗性等优点,被广泛用于果蔬、农作物、园林害虫的防治,但有关其对害虫天敌烟蚜茧蜂的安全性尚不明确。因此,本文研究矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂不同发育阶段的安全性,为更好地协调蚜虫的化学防治和生物防治提供理论依据。【方法】在实验室条件下采用药膜法和浸渍法测定了不同浓度(150、250、350、450倍液)矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂各发育阶段的影响。【结果】矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂成虫的影响较小,无明显胃毒作用,但有一定的触杀作用,以最高浓度150倍液(4986.960 mg·L-1)处理24 h后的存活率依然高达92%;矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂寄生蚜有较高的致死率,LC50为859.541 mg·L-1,该浓度远远低于此次供试的最低浓度450倍液(1662.320 mg·L-1),说明矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂卵和幼虫的安全性较差;矿物油乳剂对烟蚜茧蜂蛹期羽化率的影响较显著,处理组的僵蚜与对照组的僵蚜相比,羽化高峰期均滞后1 d,且羽化率随着处理浓度的增大而下降(450倍液时羽化率为81.25%,150倍液时仅为47.75%)。【结论】当蚜虫发生严重时,可考虑在烟蚜茧蜂成虫期协调使用矿物油乳剂进行联合控制,但矿物油乳剂的使用浓度和施用时间还有待进一步确定。     

Effect of short-term cold temperature stress on development,survival and reproduction of Dysdercus koenigii (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae)

Red cotton bug Dysdercus koenigii F. (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae), is found destructive pest in various cotton growing areas. Under natural conditions insects are highly subjected to thermal stresses. In present work the developmental duration and survival rate of all immature stages, adult longevity and reproduction of D. koenigii by exposed to rapid changes in very low temperatures were studied. When 3 h short-stress of low temperatures (12–0 °C) was given to different stages of D. koenigii, the results revealed that survival rate of all stages were significantly reduced. Survival rate of female was significantly higher than male after exposed to cold temperature stress. Mating percentage, fecundity and hatching percentage were decreased significantly with the decrease of short-term cold temperature stress. Based on these results, we concluded that the developmental duration, survival rate and reproduction of D. koenigii significantly affected when they exposed to short term cold temperature stress.     

Survival and chill-coma in the adult lesser mealworm,Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), exposed to low temperatures

The survival of adult Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) at low temperatures has been investigated under laboratory conditions: LT₅₀ ranges from 9.5 days at 6°C to 47.6 days at 10°C and LT₉₉ ranges from 20 days at 6°C to 102.2 days at 10°C. Mean survival shows no significant differences between sexes, but at 10°C, all the males are dead after 88 days and all the females after 107 days. Temperature of 6°C is progressively lethal for the beetles: activity ceases, all the insects are in chill-coma after 12 days and died after 22 days. At 10°C, after 1 month, 70% of the insects are still active. Chill-coma is a reversible state but insects which entered chill-coma last did not recover in most cases and also died the last. During winter sanitary disinfections, A. diaperinus is submitted to subzero temperatures: the rate of adult survival is a key factor governing the population dynamics in the poultry houses.     

Oral toxicity of symbiotic bacteria Photorhabdus spp. against immature stages of insects

The oral toxicity of 5 Photorhabdus spp. strains collected in different regions of Korea was determined in the larvae of Plodia interpunctella, Galleria mellonella, Lucilia caesar, and Culex pipiens pallens. When diet or water containing culture media containing 1 of the 5 different strains was ingested by immature insects, the first instar larvae of both G. mellonella and L. caesar and young larvae of C. pipiens pallens died within 3–5 days after treatment. However, mortality of P. interpunctella neonate larvae was slightly slower and reached 94.4%–100% within 7 days after treatment. The mortality rate of a control group given a diet containing water, the medium without cultured bacteria, or Escherichia coli culture medium was not affected. The mortality rates were 100%, 45.3%, 2.8%, and 0% for Galleria, Lucilia, Plodia, and Culex, respectively, in another control group given a culture medium of Photorhabdus luminescens ssp. laumondii (TT01). In addition, culture media containing Photorhabdus strains significantly inhibited molting of third instar Plodia larvae by as much as 88% 7 days after treatment, whereas molting inhibition was reduced by 0%, 4%, and 20% following treatments with water, E. coli, or TT01 culture media, respectively. Our results suggest that the oral administration of Photorhabdus bacterial medium was highly effective for controlling various immature insects.     

天敌昆虫耐冷藏力研究进展

低温冷藏是延长天敌昆虫货架期的有效方法之一.昆虫的存活率、生殖力、田间寄生(捕食)力等是评估天敌昆虫耐冷藏力的重要指标.昆虫耐冷藏力受冷藏前、冷藏中和冷藏后的各种外源(非生物)因子和内源(生物)因子的影响.这些因子主要包括温度、湿度、光周期、氧浓度、冷藏持续时间、冷藏前的预处理、冷藏过程中的温度处理(混合低温)等外源因子和虫体能量物质的储备、繁殖方式、年龄/龄期、滞育(休眠)状态、营养等内源因子.本文对影响天敌昆虫耐冷藏性的内源因子和外源因子的种类以及产生这些影响的生理学机制等进行了综述,以期为天敌昆虫低温储藏技术研究和生产方案的制定提供依据.     

Suitability of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) biotype-B as prey for Chrysopa pallens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

The suitability of Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) biotype-B eggs and nymphs as prey for pre-imaginal development and survival, adult longevity, and fecundity of the lacewing, Chrysopa pallens (Rambur) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) was evaluated under laboratory conditions at 25±1°C, 50±10% RH and a photoperiod of 16 h L:8 h D. Survival of C. pallens from first instar to adult eclosion was significantly different between the larvae that fed on the two prey species. C. pallens fed on A. craccivora completed development from egg to adult emergence, but those fed on eggs and nymphs of B. tabaci could not complete development, resulting in abnormal pupae and no normal adults emerged. The net reproductive rate (R ₀), intrinsic rate of natural population increase (r _m ), finite rate of increase (λ), mean generation time (T), index of population trend (I), doubling time (DT), and gross reproductive of rate (GRR) of C. pallens that fed on A. craccivora were 201.9 eggs per female, 0.13/d, 1.1/d, 40.1 d, 68.5, 5.2 d, 203.1 eggs per female, respectively. These results could be useful for mass-rearing of C. pallens and for understanding its population dynamics in the field in relation to the availability of different prey species.     

Trypsinized Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa have no detrimental effects on the adult green lacewing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysopa pallens</Emphasis> (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

An exposure bioassay was established for green lacewing Chrysopa pallens (Rambur) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) adults using a suitable artificial diet and honey–water solution (20%) to assess the toxicity of trypsinized Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa. Lethal and sub-lethal life table parameters were unaffected after C. pallens adults were given honey–water solutions containing Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa (50 µg/ml) and an artificial diet. In contrast, life table parameters of C. pallens adults were significantly affected when boric acid was mixed with the honey–water solution as a positive control. The uptake, temporal stability and bioactivity of Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa before and after C. pallens access to honey–water were confirmed using double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and a bioactivity verification bioassay. The results prove that trypsinized Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa are safe for C. pallens adults, thus it is speculated that transgenic crops expressing Cry1Fa and Vip3Aa have no detrimental effects on lacewings and are compatible with biological control programs. This study describes a robust experimental design for evaluating the potential toxicity of alkaline gut-activated Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins on C. pallens adults which can be used to determine the potential toxicity of other Bt proteins on this species.     

The Distribution of Fruit and Seed Toxicity during Development for Eleven Neotropical Trees and Vines in Central Panama

Secondary compounds in fruit mediate interactions with natural enemies and seed dispersers, influencing plant survival and species distributions. The functions of secondary metabolites in plant defenses have been well-studied in green tissues, but not in reproductive structures of plants. In this study, the distribution of toxicity within plants was quantified and its influence on seed survival was determined in Central Panama. To investigate patterns of allocation to chemical defenses and shifts in allocation with fruit development, I quantified variation in toxicity between immature and mature fruit and between the seed and pericarp for eleven species. Toxicity of seed and pericarp was compared to leaf toxicity for five species. Toxicity was measured as reduced hyphal growth of two fungal pathogens, Phoma sp. and Fusarium sp., and reduced survivorship of brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana, across a range of concentrations of crude extract. I used these measures of potential toxicity against generalist natural enemies to examine the effect of fruit toxicity on reductions of fruit development and seed survival by vertebrates, invertebrates, and pathogens measured for seven species in a natural enemy removal experiment. The seed or pericarp of all vertebrate- and wind-dispersed species reduced Artemia survivorship and hyphal growth of Fusarium during the immature and mature stages. Only mature fruit of two vertebrate-dispersed species reduced hyphal growth of Phoma. Predispersal seed survival increased with toxicity of immature fruit to Artemia during germination and decreased with toxicity to fungi during fruit development. This study suggests that fruit toxicity against generalist natural enemies may be common in Central Panama. These results support the hypothesis that secondary metabolites in fruit have adaptive value and are important in the evolution of fruit-frugivore interactions.     

Larvicidal activity of Amyris balsamifera,Daucus carota and Pogostemon cablin essential oils and their components against Culex pipiens pallens

Larvicidal activities of Amyris balsamifera, Daucus carota, and Pogostemon cablin essential oils were tested against Culex pipiens pallens. All three oils showed 100% larvicidal activity against C. pipiens pallens at 0.1 mg/mL. Among the tested oils, the larvicidal activity of D. carota oil was the strongest followed by P. cablin and A. balsamifera. Four active compounds such as β-eudesmol, elemol, patchoulol, and carotol were isolated from the three oils by open column chromatography. These compounds showed > 90% mortality against C. pipiens pallens at 0.1 mg/mL. In acute toxicity testing of the water flea, Daphnia magna, P. cablin oil was the most toxic followed by A. balsamifera, and D. carota. Among the isolated compounds, carotol was the most toxic to water fleas. The residues of P. cablin, A. balsamifera, and D. carota in water were 67.8%, 59.5%, and 51.2% at 2 days after treatment, respectively. High concentrations of elemol and patchoulol were detected 2 days after treatment compared to those of β-eudesmol and elemol. Whole oils and compounds tested were detected at < 50% after 7 days in water.     

Enemy targeting, trade-offs, and the evolutionary assembly of a tortoise beetle defense arsenal

In response to intense enemy selection, immature folivorous insects have evolved elaborate, multi-trait defense arsenals. How enemies foster trait diversification and arsenal assembly depends on which selective mode they impose: whether different enemies select for the same defense or exert conflicting selection on a prey species. Theory has long supposed that the selective advantage of a defense depends on its efficacy against a broad spectrum of enemies, which implies that predator selection is more diffuse than pairwise. Here, we use the multi-trait defense arsenal of the tortoise beetle, Acromis sparsa, which consists of shields, gregariousness and maternal guarding to test whether: (1) diverse enemies have selected for narrowly targeted defenses in the Acromis lineage; (2) newer traits out-performed older ones or vice versa, and; (3) if selection by different enemies results in positive (escalation) trends in defense effectiveness. Because their defenses could be modified or ablated, individuals were rendered differentially protected, and their survival was quantified in a long-term field study. Exclusion experiments evaluated defense efficacy against particular enemy guilds. Logit regression revealed that: (1)no single trait increased survival against the entire enemy suite; (2)trait efficacy was strongly correlated with a particular enemy, consistent with narrow targeting; (3)traits lacked strong cross-resistance among enemies; (4)traits performed synergistically, consistent with the idea of escalation, and; (5)traits interacted negatively to decrease survival, indicative of performance trade-offs. From collation of the phylogenetic histories of arsenal and enemy community assembly we hypothesize that older traits performed better against older enemies and that patterns of both trait and enemy accumulation are consistent with defense escalation. Trade-offs and lack of cross-resistance among defenses imply that enemy selection has been conflicting at the guild level and that negative functional interactions among defenses have fostered the evolution of a defense arsenal of increasing complexity.     

Non-crop vegetation associated with chili pepper agroecosystems promote the abundance and survival of aphid predators

Habitat manipulation has long been used as strategy to enhance beneficial insects in agroecosystems. Non-crop weed strips have the potential of supplying food resources to natural enemies, even when pest densities are low. However, in tropical agroecosystems there is a paucity of information pertaining to the resources provided by non-crop weeds and their interactions with natural enemies. In this study we evaluated (a) whether weeds within chili pepper fields affect the diversity and abundance of aphidophagous species; (b) whether there are direct interactions between weeds and aphidophagous arthropods; and (c) the importance of weed floral resources for survival of a native and exotic coccinellid in chili pepper agroecosystems. In the field, aphidophagous arthropods were dominated by Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Anthocoridae, Neuroptera and Araneae, and these natural enemies were readily observed preying on aphids, feeding on flowers or extrafloral nectaries, and using plant structures for oviposition and/or protection. Survival of native Cycloneda sanguinea (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) differed between plant species, with significantly greater survival on Ageratum conyzoides and Bidens pilosa. However, no evidence was gathered to suggest that weed floral resources provided any nutritional benefit to the exotic Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). This research has provided evidence that naturally growing weeds in chili pepper agroecosystems can affect aphid natural enemy abundance and survival, highlighting the need for further research to fully characterize the structure and function of plant resources in these and other tropical agroecosystems.     

多异瓢虫与七星瓢虫、大草蛉不同虫态间的集团内捕食

多异瓢虫、七星瓢虫和大草蛉是控制蚜虫重要的广谱捕食性天敌昆虫,为明确这些昆虫间的集团内捕食效应与个体发育阶段的关系,观察了多异瓢虫与七星瓢虫、大草蛉各虫态(蛹除外)之间的集团内捕食效应。设置30个虫态(虫龄)组合处理,于温室盆栽棉花(无蚜虫)上接种等量的试虫,观察24 h后的存活数量。结果表明,当参与双方的虫态不同时,晚期虫态的存活数量显著大于早期虫态;当参与双方的幼虫龄期不同时,高龄幼虫的存活数量显著大于低龄幼虫;成虫对卵、1龄和4龄幼虫的捕食程度随虫龄增大而呈抛物线增大,存在显著的二次函数关系。当参与双方的虫态(龄)相同时,多异瓢虫成虫的存活数量显著小于七星瓢虫,但大于大草蛉成虫;多异瓢虫幼虫(1龄和4龄)的存活数量显著小于大草蛉,而与七星瓢虫没有显著差异。研究结果说明,在没有集团外猎物(蚜虫)存在的情况下,多异瓢虫与七星瓢虫、大草蛉之间的集团内捕食效应只在参与者的虫态或虫龄不同时取决于发育阶段,而当参与者虫态或虫龄相同时,还取决于其他因素。     

Toxicity of acaricides to Raoiella indica and their selectivity for its predator, Amblyseius largoensis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae: Phytoseiidae)

Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) is considered a pest of coconut palm in Asia and the Middle East. This mite was recently introduced in the Americas, where it spread to several countries and expanded its range of hosts, causing heavy losses to coconut and banana production. The phytoseiid mite Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) is one of the predators most often encountered in coconut palms. Because the current prospects for the control of R. indica in the New World indicate the use of acaricides and the management of their natural enemies, the objective of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of selected acaricides to R. indica and the selectivity (i.e., toxicity to the predator relative to toxicity to the prey) for A. largoensis. Assays were performed by the immersion of banana leaf discs in acaricide solutions, followed by the placing of adult females of the pest or predator on the discs. Mortality of the mites was evaluated after 24 h, and the data obtained were subjected to probit analysis. Abamectin, fenpyroximate, milbemectin and spirodiclofen were the products most toxic to R. indica adults, whereas fenpyroximate and spirodiclofen were the most selective for A. largoensis.     

Acaricidal property of the essential oil from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lippia gracilis</Emphasis> against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis> and a natural enemy, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neoseiulus californicus</Emphasis>, under greenhouse conditions

The essential oil from the leaves of Lippia gracilis was investigated for fumigant and residual activity against Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae). The results were compared to eugenol, Ortus^® and Azamax^®, as positive controls. Gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry analysis enabled the identification of 28 compounds, accounting for 99.1?±?0.6% of the essential oil. The major constituents were carvacrol (61%), p-cymene (11%) and thymol (11%). Mites were more susceptible to the oil in fumigant tests than in residual tests. Among the components, thymol and β-caryophyllene had the greatest fumigant and residual toxicity against T. urticae, respectively. The role of selected constituents (carvacrol, p-cymene, thymol, limonene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, terpinolene and β-caryophyllene) in the acaricidal properties of the L. gracilis essential oil is also discussed. Fumigant and residual effects of Lippia oil were more selective than eugenol with regard to a natural enemy of T. urticae, Neoseiulus californicus. Experiments under greenhouse conditions demonstrated greater toxicity of the Lippia oil in comparison to the positive control at 24, 48 and 72 h after treatment. The results suggest that Lippia oil is a good candidate for the formulation of a botanical acaricide for the integrated management of T. urticae.     

Life table analysis of the green rice leafhopper,Nephotettix virescens (distant) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), and efficient vector of rice tungro disease in asynchronous rice fields in Indonesia

Population dynamics of Nephotettix virescens was studied in 17 paddy fields transplanted at intervals of about 1 month in 1988–1990. The adult density was highest either in the immigrant or the 1st generation and sharply decreased to the 2nd generation. The survival rate of the 1st generation was lowest in the transition season when areal population density increased. Key factor analysis revealed that the nymphal and adult mortality of the 1st generation (kn) was the principal source of population fluctuations. No significant correaltion was found between kn and natural enemy density, natural enemy density/healthy egg density, or the precipitation during the nymphal period. On these bases adult emigration was suspected to be the key factor. Areal population build-up of N. virescens in the transition season was considered to occur as a result of increasing immigration to young stages of rice.     

使用生命表评价烯啶虫胺对异色瓢虫的影响

为正确评估广谱杀虫剂烯啶虫胺对天敌昆虫异色瓢虫Harmonia axyridis(Pallas)的影响,采取滤纸接触法测定了烯啶虫胺(防治蚜虫田间推荐用量)对异色瓢虫影响,并使用生命表研究了烯啶虫胺对异色瓢虫实验种群的影响,为协调害虫的化学防治与生物防治提供参考。结果表明:该剂量烯啶虫胺对异色瓢虫当代(F0)取食具有显著影响,药剂处理后7d内,成虫取食量显著降低;对F0代成虫寿命及雌虫繁殖能力未见负面影响;烯啶虫胺处理对异色瓢虫初产卵、F1代幼虫及蛹的历期没有显著影响;卵孵化率明显小于对照组,幼虫存活率及蛹羽化率没有显著影响。F0代种群净增值力、周限增长率、内禀增长率与对照相比差异不显著,分别为812.66粒(对照899.73粒)、1.084(对照1.093)、0.081(对照0.089),药剂处理种群加倍时间为8.557d,与对照7.888d相比没有显著延长。这些结果说明,大田中使用烯啶虫胺防治蚜虫时理论上对异色瓢虫种群繁殖及发育没有显著影响,但施药初期会影响异色瓢虫的取食量。     

Effect of diet and mating status on ovarian development and oviposition in the polyphagous predator Macrolophus caliginosus (Heteroptera: Miridae)

The mirid bug Macrolophus caliginosus is commercially reared on eggs of Ephestia kuehniella, constituting an effective but expensive factitious food. Artificial diets can decrease the rearing costs of this natural enemy, but developing and evaluating an artificial diet is a very time-consuming activity. In the current study, development and reproduction of M. caliginosus on two artificial diets based on egg yolk were investigated. The artificial diets resulted in longer development and lower adult weights, but survival was comparable with that of control insects fed E. kuehniella eggs. Reproductive potential of the predator reared on factitious and artificial foods was assessed using a dissection method. The influence of nymphal food on fecundity was less important than that of adult food. Adults fed E. kuehniella eggs had a preoviposition period of about 4 days, whereas adults offered only plant material started laying eggs about 7 days after emergence. Ovarian scores at day 7 were higher for females fed E. kuehniella eggs than for those given access only to a tobacco leaf. Ovarian scores were not significantly affected by mating status. In a final test, a parallel comparison of two methods for assessing reproductive response to diet was made. Here, adult couples were offered one of four diets: E. kuehniella eggs, one of two artificial diets or no food. Half of the females were dissected and the other half was held for determining lifetime oviposition. Females fed E. kuehniella eggs had superior ovarian scores and laid more eggs than those fed either artificial diet or those given no extra food. A good correlation (r = 0.97) was obtained between ovarian scores and oviposition data, indicating that dissecting females after 1 week provides a reliable estimate of fecundity as affected by diet quality. Rapid reproductive assessments as used in the current study will help to increase the rate of development of artificial diets and may contribute to more cost effective production methods for augmentative biological control agents.