Implications of invariant residue LeuB6 in insulin-receptor interactions

By the chemical synthesis of modified insulin B chains and the combination of the synthetic B chains with natural insulin A chains, we have prepared insulin analogs with natural and unnatural amino acid replacements of invariant residue LeuB6. Analogs have been investigated by reference to their potencies for interaction with the insulin receptor (as assessed by competition for 125I-labeled binding to isolated canine hepatocytes) and to their abilities to undergo the structural transitions that are characteristic of insulin self-aggregation (as assessed by the spectroscopic analysis of analog complexes with cobalt). Our results identify that (a) replacement of LeuB6 by glycine has nearly the equivalent effect as deletion of residues B1-B6 in decreasing receptor binding potency of the analog to only about 0.05% of that of insulin; (b) relative to the GlyB6 derivative, replacements that increase the relative hydrophobicity of the residue B6 side chain also increase the relative receptor binding potencies of the resulting analogs; (c) negative steric effects resulting from substitutions by valine, phenylalanine, and gamma-ethylnorleucine limit the potential for enhancing potency as the result of increased hydrophobicity; and (d) two analogs with disparate potency for receptor interaction (those with alanine and gamma-ethylnorleucine at position B6, analogs exhibiting about 1 and 48% of the potency of insulin, respectively) undergo the T6----R6 structural transition in the presence of Co2+ and phenol which is typical of insulin but result in hexameric complexes with greatly reduced stability. We conclude that leucine provides a closely determined best fit at insulin position B6, and we discuss our findings in terms of insulin conformations that may apply to the receptor-bound state of the hormone.     

Elucidating structural and molecular mechanisms of β-arrestin-biased agonism at GPCRs via MS-based proteomics

The discovery of β-arrestin-dependent GPCR signaling has led to an exciting new field in GPCR pharmacology: to develop “biased agonists” that can selectively target a specific downstream signaling pathway that elicits beneficial therapeutic effects without activating other pathways that elicit negative side effects. This new trend in GPCR drug discovery requires us to understand the structural and molecular mechanisms of β-arrestin-biased agonism, which largely remain unclear. We have used cutting-edge mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics, combined with systems, chemical and structural biology to study protein function, macromolecular interaction, protein expression and posttranslational modifications in the β-arrestin-dependent GPCR signaling. These high-throughput proteomic studies have provided a systems view of β-arrestin-biased agonism from several perspectives: distinct receptor phosphorylation barcode, multiple receptor conformations, distinct β-arrestin conformations, and ligand-specific signaling. The information obtained from these studies offers new insights into the molecular basis of GPCR regulation by β-arrestin and provides a potential platform for developing novel therapeutic interventions through GPCRs.     

Medicinal chemistry and pharmacology of cyclic ADP-ribose

Cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) is a signaling molecule that has been shown to regulate calcium mobilization from intracellular stores in a wide variety of biological systems. Synthesis of structural analogs of cADPR has provided insights into structure-activity relationships as well as produced pharmacological research tools with useful properties such as, hydrolysis-resistance and cell permeability. The first generation of cADPR analogs was synthesized by a chemo-enzymatic approach that took advantage of the broad substrate specificity of Aplysia ADP-ribosyl cyclase. Analogs synthesized by this approach provided useful structure-activity information, including the importance of the 8-position of the adenine in determining agonistic or antagonistic activity and of the 3'-hydroxyl group of the southern ribose for activity. Hydrolysis resistant analogs were generated by replacing the southern ribose with a carbocyclic structure or by replacing the adenine ring with 7-deaza- or 3-deaza-adenine. Approaches to synthesize cADPR analogs by total chemical approaches have been recently reported. These approaches allow the synthesis of analogs with stable linkages between N1 of adenine and the northern ribose (or surrogate) that are not possible with the enzymatic strategy. This review will focus on the synthesis and properties of analogs that have been shown to have utility in dissecting the role of cADPR in calcium signaling.     

Characterization of preprorelaxin by tryptic digestion and inhibition of its conversion to prorelaxin by amino acid analogs

We studied the in vitro synthesis of relaxin--an ovarian protein hormone related to the insulin subset of growth factors. RNA isolated from corpora lutea of pregnant sows directed the synthesis of a Mr = 23,000 protein in an ascites tumor cell-free system. This protein contained all of the cysteine-bearing tryptic peptides of relaxin as determined by precise co-migration of tryptic fragments of relaxin precursor generated in vitro and those of highly purified relaxin isolated from sow ovary. Based upon these data, it is likely that the primary translation product of porcine relaxin shares structural homology with preproinsulin. The Mr = 23,000 precursor to relaxin is converted to a Mr = 20,000 prohormone in the presence of ascites microsomal membranes. This conversion and the membrane translocation phenomenon which accompanies it can be inhibited in vitro by the use of beta-hydroxyleucine, an amino acid analog. Use of amino acid analogs may represent a technique to allow study of the conversion of relaxin precursors to relaxin in the luteal cell.     

Glucagon and the Glucagon Receptor: Merrifield Years at the Interface of Chemistry and Biology

The glucagon signaling system is a good model to investigate the chemical and structural requirements that dictate the interaction between a peptide hormone and its membrane-bound receptor and the cascade of events that lead to a physiological response. Secreted by pancreatic A cells, the primary target organ of glucagon is the liver where, together with insulin, it plays a central role in the maintenance of normal circulating glucose levels critical to the survival of the organism. The impetus for studying how glucagon interacts with its receptor is to gain insight into the mechanism of glucagon action in normal physiology as well as in diabetes mellitus. The principal approach towards this goal is to design and synthesize analogues of glucagon that will bind with high affinity to the glucagon receptor but will not activate it. These peptide analogues are expected to be potent antagonists of the hormone and will provide insight into the role of glucagon in diabetes. A second complementary approach is to investigate structure-function relationships in the glucagon receptor by site-directed mutagenesis and the biochemical and pharmacological characterization of mutant receptors. These studies will provide information about the peptide-binding site in the receptor and the residues that dictate ligand selectivity. A stable mammalian cell line that expresses human glucagon receptor at high-levels has been developed and should provide receptor protein for structural studies. An interdisciplinary approach combining chemical synthesis, molecular biology and biophysical methods is crucial for the conception of three-dimensional receptor models to be used in the rational design of glucagon antagonists for the management of diabetes. Dedicated to Bruce Merrifield.     

Design and synthesis of novel chemokine analogs derived from vMIP-II

Stepwise solid phase synthesis using the Fmoc chemistry is reported for a panel of 71-residue and novel unnatural chemokine analogs derived from vMIP-II. This demonstrates the feasibility of using this synthetic method to generate de novo designed protein ligand molecules to study the biology and pharmacology of chemokine receptors.     

Role of insulin-like growth factor iin maintaining normal glucose homeostasis

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) has significant structural homology with insulin. IGF-I has been shown to bind to insulin receptors to stimulate glucose transport in fat and muscle, to inhibit hepatic glucose output and to lower blood glucose while simultaneously suppressing insulin secretion. However, the precise role of IGF-I in maintaining normal glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity is not well defined. Studies in patients with diabetes have shown that in insulin-deficient states, serum IGF-I concentrations are low and increase with insulin therapy. Similarly, administration of insulin via the portal vein results in optimization of plasma IGF-I concentrations. A patient with an IGF1 gene deletion was shown to have severe insulin resistance that improved with IGF-I therapy. Studies conducted in experimental animals have shown that if IGF-I synthesis by the liver is deleted, the animals become insulin-resistant, and this is improved when IGF-I is administered. Likewise, deletion of the IGF-I receptor in muscle in mice induces severe insulin resistance. Administration of IGF-I to patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus has been shown to result in an improvement in insulin sensitivity and a reduction in the requirement for exogenously administered insulin to maintain glucose homeostasis. A polymorphism in the IGF1 gene that has been shown to reduce serum IGF-I results in an increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Taken together, these findings support the conclusion that IGF-I is necessary for normal insulin sensitivity, and impairment of IGF-I synthesis results in a worsening state of insulin resistance.     

Perturbation of insulin-receptor interactions by intramolecular hormone cross-linking. Analysis of relative movement among residues A1, B1, and B29

We have evaluated, by use of isolated canine hepatocytes, the importance of intramolecular hormone cross-linking (and of concomitant changes in molecular flexibility) to the interaction of insulin with its plasma membrane receptor. Cross-linked hormone analogs were prepared by reacting porcine insulin, N alpha A1-t-butyloxycarbonyl insulin or N alpha A1-t-butyloxycarbonyl [D-LysA1]insulin with various dicarboxylic acid active esters to obtain alpha-GlyA1/epsilon-LysB29-, alpha-PheB1/epsilon-LysB29-, and epsilon-D-LysA1/epsilon-LysB29-cross-linked insulins, respectively. In the aggregate, insulin analogs cross-linked by groups containing 2-12 atoms retained 1.4-35% of the receptor binding potency of native insulin. Analysis of our results suggests that: (a) loss of chemical functionality, steric interference, and restriction of potential intramolecular movement can all play roles in determining the receptor binding potencies of cross-linked insulin analogs; (b) restriction of intramolecular movement between residues A1 and B29 affects negatively the binding of insulin to its receptor (but accounts for only a fraction of the conformational change which insulin must undergo to achieve a high affinity state of ligand-receptor interaction); and (c) introduction of a cross-link between residues B1 and B29 (residues that are in fact in proximity in one crystalline form of the hormone) decreases markedly the receptor binding potencies of the corresponding analogs. The importance of these findings is discussed in relation to the potential structure of insulin when it is bound to its plasma membrane receptor.     

Molecular variants and derivatives of insulin for improved glycemic control in diabetes

Insulin is a historic molecule. It presents many first instances, such as the first protein to be fully sequenced, one of the first proteins to be crystallized in pure form, one among the early proteins whose structure was investigated using X-ray crystallography, the first protein to be chemically synthesized and the first Biotech drug. Therefore, the development of insulin in the early years is intricately intertwined with the progress in molecular and structural biology. In recent years, development of a range of insulin analogs has led to better control of glucose levels, thus preventing secondary complications and improving the quality of life in diabetic patients. Such analogs were obtained by modification of the native insulin sequence. They vary with regard to their pharmacokinetic profile, stability, tissue specificity and mode of administration. In addition, alterations involving incorporation of various chemical moieties in insulin and its co-crystallization with insoluble derivatives are used to modulate the time-action profile of the drug. This article traces the development of molecular variants and derivatives of insulin. It discusses future directions for further improvement in their properties to produce still better insulin therapeutics for tight glycemic control.     

Analysis of Insulin Analogs and the Strategy of Their Further Development

We analyzed the structural properties of the peptide hormone insulin and described the mechanism of its physiological action, as well as effects of insulin in type 1 and 2 diabetes. Recently published data on the development of novel insulin preparations based on combining molecular design and genetic engineering approaches are presented. New strategies for creation of long-acting insulin analogs, the mechanisms of functioning of these analogs and their structure are discussed. Side effects of insulin preparations are described, including amyloidogenesis and possible mitogenic effect. The pathways for development of novel insulin analogs are outlined with regard to the current requirements for therapeutic preparations due to the wider occurrence of diabetes of both types.     

一种筛选单体速效胰岛素的简便方法

通过基因突变方法制备的单体速效胰岛素Lispro Insulin已上市用于治疗糖尿病,如何利用简便快速的方法研究获得新的单体速效胰岛素成为研究的热点。以Lispro Insulin为模型,利用猪胰岛素的胰蛋白酶酶切大片段(DOI,去B链C端八肽胰岛素)和化学合成的八肽,通过胰蛋白酶的酶促合成方法为筛选新的单体速效胰岛素提供了新的途径。结果显示,酶促合成得到的95％纯度的Lispro Insulin具备了单体速效胰岛素的不自身聚合的特点。     

Proteomic Changes to the Updated Discovery of Engineered Insulin and Its Analogs: Pros and Cons

The destruction of β-cells of the pancreas leads to either insulin shortage or the complete absence of insulin, which in turn causes diabetes Mellitus. For treating diabetes, many trials have been conducted since the 19th century until now. In ancient times, insulin from an animal’s extract was taken to treat human beings. However, this resulted in some serious allergic reactions. Therefore, scientists and researchers have tried their best to find alternative ways for managing diabetes with progressive advancements in biotechnology. However, a lot of research trials have been conducted, and they discovered more progressed strategies and approaches to treat type I and II diabetes with satisfaction. Still, investigators are finding more appropriate ways to treat diabetes accurately. They formulated insulin analogs that mimic the naturally produced human insulin through recombinant DNA technology and devised many methods for appropriate delivery of insulin. This review will address the following questions: What is insulin preparation? How were these devised and what are the impacts (both positive and negative) of such insulin analogs against TIDM (type-I diabetes mellitus) and TIIDM (type-II diabetes mellitus)? This review article will also demonstrate approaches for the delivery of insulin analogs into the human body and some future directions for further improvement of insulin treatment.     

Structural analogs of tylophora alkaloids may not be functional analogs

Phenanthroindolizidine-based tylophora alkaloids have been reported to have potential antitumor, anti-immuno and, anti-inflammatory activity. The structure-activity relationships of a series of tylophora alkaloids were studied to guide future drug design. Our results indicate that although these compounds are structural analogs, their potency of cytotoxicity, selectivity against NF-kappaB signaling pathway, and their inhibitory effects against protein and nucleic acid synthesis are different. Because they do not have an identical spectrum of targets, the studied compounds are structural, but may not be functional analogs.     

Potential mechanism(s) involved in the regulation of glycogen synthesis by insulin

Stimulation of glycogen synthesis is one of the major physiological responses modulated by insulin. Although, details of the precise mechanism by which insulin action on glycogen synthesis is mediated remains uncertain, significant advances have been made to understand several steps in this process. Most importantly, recent studies have focussed on the possible role of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) and glycogen bound protein phosphatase-1 (PP-1G) in the activation of glycogen synthase (GS) - a key enzyme of glycogen metabolism. Evidence is also accumulating to establish a link between insulin receptor induced signaling pathway(s) and glycogen synthesis. This article summarizes the potential contribution of various elements of insulin signaling pathway such as mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK), protein kinase B (PKB), and phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) in the activation of GS and glycogen synthesis.     

Chemical genomics in plant biology

Chemical genomics is a newly emerged and rapidly progressing field in biology, where small chemical molecules bind specifically and reversibly to protein(s) to modulate their function(s), leading to the delineation and subsequent unravelling of biological processes. This approach overcomes problems like lethality and redundancy of classical genetics. Armed with the powerful techniques of combinatorial synthesis, high-throughput screening and target discovery chemical genomics expands its scope to diverse areas in biology. The well-established genetic system of Arabidopsis model allows chemical genomics to enter into the realm of plant biology exploring signaling pathways of growth regulators, endomembrane signaling cascades, plant defense mechanisms and many more events.     

Discovery and characterization of olokizumab

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a critical regulator of the immune system and has been widely implicated in autoimmune disease. Here, we describe the discovery and characterization of olokizumab, a humanized antibody to IL-6. Data from structural biology, cell biology and primate pharmacology demonstrate the therapeutic potential of targeting IL-6 at “Site 3”, blocking the interaction with the signaling co-receptor gp130.     

Insulin signaling to hepatic lipid metabolism in health and disease

The increasing prevalence of overnutrition and reduced activity has led to a worldwide epidemic of obesity. In many cases, this is associated with insulin resistance, an inability of the hormone to direct its physiological actions appropriately. A number of disease states accompany insulin resistance such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, the metabolic syndrome, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Though the pathways by which insulin controls hepatic glucose output have been of intense study in recent years, considerably less attention has been devoted to how lipid metabolism is regulated. Thus, both the proximal signaling pathways as well as the more distal targets of insulin remain uncertain. In this review, we consider the signaling pathways by which insulin controls the synthesis and accumulation of lipids in the mammalian liver and, in particular, how this might lead to abnormal triglyceride deposition in liver during insulin-resistant states.     

Insulin signaling to hepatic lipid metabolism in health and disease

The increasing prevalence of overnutrition and reduced activity has led to a worldwide epidemic of obesity. In many cases, this is associated with insulin resistance, an inability of the hormone to direct its physiological actions appropriately. A number of disease states accompany insulin resistance such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, the metabolic syndrome, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Though the pathways by which insulin controls hepatic glucose output have been of intense study in recent years, considerably less attention has been devoted to how lipid metabolism is regulated. Thus, both the proximal signaling pathways as well as the more distal targets of insulin remain uncertain. In this review, we consider the signaling pathways by which insulin controls the synthesis and accumulation of lipids in the mammalian liver and, in particular, how this might lead to abnormal triglyceride deposition in liver during insulin-resistant states.     

Somatostatin analogs.

Somatostatin is a hypothalamic peptide hormone that inhibits the secretion of growth hormone, glucagon, insulin, gastrin and secretin, and also plays a role in neural transmission. Because of its wide range of possible clinical applications hundreds of somatostatin analogs have been synthesized and bioassayed to date. This review gives a historical perspective, summarizing approximately 30 years of research on somatostatin. The main focus is on the structure-activity relationships and conformational studies of the last generation of somatostatin agonists and their selectivity for five somatostatin receptor subtypes. Achievements in the synthesis of nonpeptide somatostatin analogs, as well as the first somatostatin antagonists, are also discussed. Finally, the use of a cyclic somatostatin scaffold to design ligands for other G-protein-coupled receptors, such as opioid and melanocortin receptors, is mentioned.