Seasonal changes in the abundance of Microcrustacea in a small pond

Sampling methods, and methods used in extracting, identifying and counting the Microcrustacea in samples are outlined. Numbers of parthenogenetic females and young stages of Daphnia obtusa were highest from March/June to Sept./Nov., with a trough in July. Ephippial females were recorded during some or all of the months from March to Nov. with two numerical maxima, one in early summer and one in autumn. Males were present during the same period as ephippial females. Naupliar, copepodid and adult stages of Cyclops strenuus strenuus were recorded in every month; numbers of all three stages tended to be high from March to Nov. and low from Dec. to Feb. Females were present in smaller sumber than males. Females with eggs sacs occurred every month with two peaks of abundance in April–July and Oct. Adult Canthocamptus staphylinus were absent during the summer/early autumn from June/July/Aug. to Sept./Oct. Numbers were highest from Nov. to May/June with a peak in spring. Females carrying an egg sac were recorded each month with the highest proportion occurring sometime in the period Feb. to May. Possibly two peaks, one in early summer and one in autumn, of total numbers of Cyclocypris ovum were recorded. Comparisons with other available information on the life-cycle of the species are made. The effects on the species of a six-week period of drought in the autumn of 1969 are considered.     

Population studies of pond zooplankton

Summary Quantitative plankton samples were collected from three small ponds weekly for fourteen weeks during the summer. Seven species of Cladocera and five species of Copepoda were collected. Nine of the species had significant affinities which were formed into one recurrent group and three associated species. The recurrent group of two cladocerans, one calanoid and three cyclopoids resembled the species composition of many small to medium lakes.The members of the recurrent group were sub-divided into filter-feeders and seizers. There were no constant numerical dominance (W) relations among the filter-feeders; W was highly significant for the seizers. There were significant differences in relative abundance for both sub-groups. The test for concordance was insignificant for both sub-groups.The population cycle of each species in each pond is described. Correlation analysis of population units of each species and several environmental factors is presented.Populations of each species found in more than one pond were compared. Population trends were compared by correlation analysis. Few significant correlations were found. Population levels were compared by analysis of variance. Many significant differences were found but the measured environmental data did not explain the differences.The diversity index did not differ significantly among weeks or among ponds. More significant correlations occurred among the species in the recurrent group; the second highest number occurred between associated species and recurrent group species. Few correlations occurred among associated species or among non-associated species or between non-associated species and any other species grouping. The significance of these patterns of diversity and correlations to the idea of a community is discussed.

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Résumé Des échantillons de plancton ont été recueillis chaque semaine de trois petits étangs pendant quatorze semaines de lété. Sept espèces de Cladocères et cinq espèces de Copepodes ont été recueillies. Neuf des espèces avaient des affinités importantes et étaient formées dans un groupe récurrent et trois espèces avaient une association avec le groupe récurrent. Le groupe récurrent, composé de deux Cladocères, un Calanoide, et trois Cyclopoides, ressemblait la composition des espèces trouvées dans des petits lacs ou dans des lacs moyens.Les members du groupe récurrent étaient subdivisés entre des filtreurs et des prédateurs. Entre les filtreurs on ne pouvait pas trouver une domination numérique (W) qui était constante; (W) était vraiment important dans les prédateurs. Il y avait des différences importantes dans l'abondance relative pour les deux sous-groupes. L'épeuve de concordance était significative pour les deux sous-groupes.Le cycle de population de chaque espèce trouvée dans chaque étang est décrit. Les éléments de population de chaque espèce et plusieurs facteurs d'environnement ont été analysés corrélativement et les résultats sont présentés ici. Les populations des espèces trouvées dans plusieurs étangs ont été comparées. Les tendances de population ont été comparées par des analyses de corrélations. Peu de corrélations importantes ont été trouvées. Les hauteurs de population ont été comparées par des analyses de variabilité. Beaucoup de différences significatives ont été trouvées, mais les données d'environnement mesurées n'ont pas expliqué les differences trouvées.L'indice de diversité n'était pas différent d'une manière significative entre les semaines ou entre les étangs. Les corrélations les plus significative ont été trouvées parmi les espèces dans le groupe récurrent; le deuxième nombre de corrélations significatives le plus haut se présentait entre les espèces ayant une affinité et les espèces du groupe récurrent. Peu de corrélations ont été trouvé parmi les espèces ayant une affinité ou parmi les espèces n'ayant aucune affinité ou entre les espèces n'ayant aucune affinité et d'autres groupes d'espèces. La signification de ces modèles de diversités et de la corrélation à l'idée d'une communauté est discutée.

     

Population structure of the Indian people: some microevolutionary aspects

Some aspects of population structure, namely village endogamy, marital distance and consanguinity in India are discussed. These parameters show social and geographic variation. The role of culture is of great importance in determining the mating pattern of a population. In the Indian situation, group endogamy in general does not cause inbreeding. Consanguinity is a cultural phenomenon of long-standing tradition, and so far there is no strong indication of a temporal change.     

池塘中斑索蟾的种群结构、个体生长与存活率

在澳大利亚新南威尔士南部沿海,作者搜集了一个池塘繁殖的斑索蟾(Crinia signifera)的种群统计资料。通过捕捉进出池塘的1 612只个体,获得种群大小、结构、生长率、性成熟时的大小和年龄、死亡率及寿命资料。迁移高峰从6月持续到11月,蛙的最高、最低遇见数量分别出现在春季和秋季。但第2年,该池塘蛙的数量明显减少,可能是由于补充到种群中的幼体数量很少的缘故。6个月后个体的重捕率很低;但距第一次捕获18个月以后,仍有个别个体再次被捕获。性成熟时,雌性比雄性的身体大一些。生长曲线显示,雌性比雄性的生长更快,所以更早地达到性成熟。研究种群的数量、结构和死亡率趋势等与已知的其它Crinia signifera种群基本一致。但研究种群迁移活动的高峰出现较晚,并且夏季的活动水平明显很高。这种长的活动时间可能会导致存活率的下降,同时有利于选择迅速性成熟的雌性[动物学报51 (3) : 393 -400 , 2005]。     

Population dynamics of pond zooplankton II Daphnia ambigua Scourfield

Calcium was the most important of 27 environmental components affecting density for a 50 week period. Simultaneous stepwise regression accounted for more variability in total number/1 and in the number of ovigerous females/1 than did any of the lag analyses; 1-week lag accounted for the greatest amount of variability in clutch size. Total number and clutch size were little affected by measures of food.Contribution no. 93 Kansas Water Resources Research Institute, Manhatten Kansas. The U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Water Resources Research provided partial support.     

Population dynamics ofDaphnia rosea in a small eutrophic pond

The population dynamics ofDaphnia rosea were studied in a small, eutrophic fish-free pond during November 1986–November 1987.D. rosea showed two density peaks in 1987, a high peak in spring and a slightly lower one in autumn, but they disappeared in mid- and late summer when a smaller cladoceran,Ceriodaphnia reticulata, dominated. The rapid decline in density ofD. rosea in mid-May and the low density in June/July were preceded by or coincided with a period of increased male density, the appearance of ephippial females, smaller body length of adult females, decreased brood size, and increased frequency of empty brood chambers, all of which indicate a worsening food situation. The rapid density decline ofD. rosea in mid-May was considered attributable neither to increasing water temperature, nor predation by the dipteranChaoborus flavicans, but to insufficient food conditions for the maintenance of stable reproduction. Although edible phytoplankton was abundant in June/July, the general food situation was not suitable forD. rosea due to blooms of the large-celled dinoflagellate,Ceratium hirundinella, which probably inhibited the feeding activity ofD. rosea. TheC. hirundinella blooms might also be important for the shift of the dominant herbivore from the largerD. rosea to the smallerCeriodaphnia reticulata in August/September.     

Population dynamics of pond zooplankton,I. Diaptomus pallidus Herrick

The simultaneous and lag relationships between 27 environmental variables and seven population components of a perennial calanoid copepod were examined by simple and partial correlations and stepwise regression. The analyses consistently explained more than 70% of the variation of a population component. The multiple correlation coefficient (R) usually was highest in no lag or in 3-week or 4-week lag except for clutch size in which R was highest in 1-week lag. Population control, egg-bearing, and clutch size were affected primarily by environmental components categorized as weather; food apparently was relatively minor in affecting population control or reproduction.     

Population niche structure

Summary The response of twenty maternal families of the annual Abutilon theophrasti to two resource gradients, nutrient and light, was investigated. The structure of the population niche for both biomass and reproductive output was found to be quite different on the two gradients. On the light gradient there was a great diversity of responses among the families while on the nutrient gradient the families responded in a similar manner. On both gradients the plants showed a significant genotype/environment interaction. Three strategies for the production of seed variation have been proposed-all offspring are adapted to the same restricted environment, each offspring of an individual is adapted to a particular environment somewhat different thant that of its siblings, and all the offspring are able to grow in a wide range of environments. We found evidence for all three of these strategies amongst the families. The range of responses seen amongst families (of the same species) in this study was as broad as that found in previous studies among species of the old field annual community to which Abutilon theophrasti belongs. This has significant implications to the nature of competitive interactions and to the evolution of differential resource use in plant populations.     

Population structure and eigenanalysis

Current methods for inferring population structure from genetic data do not provide formal significance tests for population differentiation. We discuss an approach to studying population structure (principal components analysis) that was first applied to genetic data by Cavalli-Sforza and colleagues. We place the method on a solid statistical footing, using results from modern statistics to develop formal significance tests. We also uncover a general “phase change” phenomenon about the ability to detect structure in genetic data, which emerges from the statistical theory we use, and has an important implication for the ability to discover structure in genetic data: for a fixed but large dataset size, divergence between two populations (as measured, for example, by a statistic like F_ST) below a threshold is essentially undetectable, but a little above threshold, detection will be easy. This means that we can predict the dataset size needed to detect structure.     

Population structure of ice-breeding seals

The development of population genetic structure in ice-breeding seal species is likely to be shaped by a combination of breeding habitat and life-history characteristics. Species that return to breed on predictable fast-ice locations are more likely to exhibit natal fidelity than pack-ice-breeding species, which in turn facilitates the development of genetic differentiation between subpopulations. Other aspects of life history such as geographically distinct vocalizations, female gregariousness, and the potential for polygynous breeding may also facilitate population structure. Based on these factors, we predicted that fast-ice-breeding seal species (the Weddell and ringed seal) would show elevated genetic differentiation compared to pack-ice-breeding species (the leopard, Ross, crabeater and bearded seals). We tested this prediction using microsatellite analysis to examine population structure of these six ice-breeding species. Our results did not support this prediction. While none of the Antarctic pack-ice species showed statistically significant population structure, the bearded seal of the Arctic pack ice showed strong differentiation between subpopulations. Again in contrast, the fast-ice-breeding Weddell seal of the Antarctic showed clear evidence for genetic differentiation while the ringed seal, breeding in similar habitat in the Arctic, did not. These results suggest that the development of population structure in ice-breeding phocid seals is a more complex outcome of the interplay of phylogenetic and ecological factors than can be predicted on the basis of breeding substrate and life-history characteristics.     

Population structure of pierid butterflies

Summary Mark-release-recapture techniques were used to study alfalfa pest populations of Colias philodice eriphyle. Two new methods for estimating relative catchability and residence rates were used to compare males to females. The results show that: (1) both sexes had limited dispersal, with mean individual ranges less than 100 m; (2) males were more abundant than females; (3) males and females had similar residence times; (4) males were more catchable than females in uncut fields, but not in cut fields. Explanations for the differences between the sexes are considered. Females may be less catchable in uncut fields because they spend less time in flight than males. Males may be more abundant than females because they develop faster, and may have lower pre-adult mortality. The differences between the sexes are discussed with respect to reproductive strategy. Comparisons with non-pest C.p. eriphyle show differences between pest and non-pest populations. Pest C.p. eriphyle were more sedentary. The residence times were similar for pest and non-pest populations, but pest C.p. eriphyle probably have longer reproductive life-spans. Mid-summer broods of the pest population were partially overlapping; the non-pest population has discrete broods. Pest population density varied less between years than non-pest population density. The differences between pest and non-pest C.p. eriphyle support the idea of ecological diversity among conspecific populations.     

Population structure of graptolite assemblages

Graptolite rhabdosomes display a diverse suite of morphologies. The range of morphotypes present within most moderate- to high-diversity assemblages from the Ordovician and Silurian is similar, despite the different taxonomic composition of the faunas at different times. Survivorship analyses of graptolite faunas from the Ordovician and Silurian demonstrate strong similarities in the mortality rates of unrelated graptolites of similar functional morphology. They also show a strong correlation between decreasing mortality rates among more mature colonies with increasing rhabdosome complexity. This similarity in both functional morphology and life history of graptolites suggests that they lived within a very stable planktic community structure.     

Population structure of pierid butterflies

Summary The numbers, dispersal behavior, aging and residence, and Wrightian neighborhood configurations of three species of Colias butterflies have been studied in central Colorado, using mark-release-recapture techniques as major tools. All populations studied have nonoverlapping generations and mature one brood each year. A brief general review of these species' autecology is given. A system for measuring degree of physical damage to the adults is introduced. This wear rating varies with temporal position of any given sample in the course of a brood's flight season, the insects becoming progressively more damaged with time. The sex ratio also changes with brood aging: males eclose before females, and are in the majority early in the flight season, while females may predominate at the end of flight. Local population numbers for the montane grassland species C. alexandra may reach peak levels of 700–900 insects in favorable years, but be much lower in other years as a result of, e.g., drought. Peak densities are no more than 2/ha. The montane bog species, C. scudderi, maintains comparable low density but has much smaller local populations. The subalpine/alpine grassland species C. meadii displays peak local numbers as high as 3000, with peak density as high as 120/hectare. Dispersal varies both among and within species. Those C. alexandra who disperse show an average dispersal radius of about 1.3 km, with a radius for the whole population of about 0.6 km; maximum distance moved was 8 km. Dispersal proportions among recaptures are sharply curtailed by adverse weather, but the dispersal radius of those moving is unaffected by weather. C. scudderi's dispersal is strongly influenced by the geometry of its bog and streamside habitats. Some C. meadii populations approach isolated island status, but others show much dispersal. Dispersal radius of those dispersing ranges from 0.3 to 0.7 km in different populations, but the proportion of dispersals varies greatly. The longest observed movement by this species is 1.3 km, although up to 2.6 km could have been detected. Colias normally display constant loss (death plus emigration) rates with average residence expectations of 4–6 days; few insects reach their maximum physiological lifespan of approximately 1 month. Bad weather can increase the loss rate drastically. Females show shorter residence than males, appearently as a result of greater mortality. Total-numbers-per-brood estimates are given for our better studied populations. The reproductive strategy of Colias is such that Wright's models for neighborhood size apply. Neighborhood size for C. alexandra varied sixfold in numbers, and from 3 to 1.3 km in physical extent, between a favorable year and a drought year. One localized C. scudderi habitat is only 200 m in diameter, but a streamside population has a neighborhood length of 4.8 km. In C. meadii, one population of 2000–2500 insects is an 8-ha island, while another of similar numbers extends a single neighborhood across 1.9 km distance, 450 m altitude, and a major ecological boundary (timberline). Factors such as weather, individuals' visual cueing, and thermoregulatory behavior can influence population structure. For some Colias populations, selection may be very uniform within neighborhoods, while for others, single neighborhoods cross sharp discontinuities in selective forces. These patterns may differ for different selective forces, and may also vary with stages of the insects' life cycle. these populations will now prove a valuable resource for studying evolutionary population genetics.     

Population structure of pierid butterflies

Summary The structure of a bivoltine, discrete-generation population of Colias philodice eriphyle, occurring in relatively undisturbed habitat, has been examined by mark-release-recapture techniques. The population's general ecology is briefly discussed. Males eclose before females as in other Colias, and a measure of physical wear on adults is related to age of individuals and to the overall position of a sample in the flight period, again as in other Colias. Densities of adults fluctuate drastically, with the first (overwintering) brood always being less dense than the second brood. Dispersal radius of those dispersing does not vary with brood, sex, or year, although the proportion of dispersants does: more males than females disperse in the first brood, while the reverse is true in the second. A tentative behavioral explanation for this is proposed. Adult mortality is unusually high compared to other Colias. The population displays area continuity with adjacent population areas. The Wrightian neighborhood size varies in geographic extent, due to change in dispersant proportions, from 70 to 260 hectares. In adult numbers, it varies from 4–500 (or possibly fewer in very severe first-brood conditions) to upwards of 20,000 in some second broods (though not all adults present always reproduce successfully). Two possible models for the dispersal behavior of Colias are presented. One, the excited state model, is so far supported over the other, continuous activity model, by the present data and by earlier work on C. alexandra. The adult mortality level is consistent with the conclusion that this population is ecologically marginal for the species. Possible selective pressures preventing further extension of the species' distribution, including possible competition with other Colias, are discussed.     

Population structure of eastern Sicily

A sample of 465 persons from Eastern Sicily was studied for 11 red-cell enzymes, namely GLO, GPT, EsD, PGP, PGD, Dia, AcP, PGM, SOD, CAI and CAII. The allele frequencies were compared with those of other Italian populations and showed that the island is homogeneous with the mainland for these systems. The rate of heterozygosity was studied as a function of interparental distance; although high (0.77) the correlation did not reach significance.     

Population structure of Francisella tularensis

We have sequenced fragments of five metabolic housekeeping genes and two genes encoding outer membrane proteins from 81 isolates of Francisella tularensis, representing all four subspecies. Phylogenetic clustering of gene sequences from F. tularensis subsp. tularensis and F. tularensis subsp. holarctica aligned well with subspecies affiliations. In contrast, F. tularensis subsp. novicida and F. tularensis subsp. mediasiatica were indicated to be phylogenetically incoherent taxa. Incongruent gene trees and mosaic structures of housekeeping genes provided evidence for genetic recombination in F. tularensis.     

Trophic structure and energy flow in a Texas pond

Annual energy flow and mean annual biocontent of eighteen compartments were determined for a 1.0 ha north central Texas pond ecosystem. Annual primary production was 7,789 kcal m^–2 yr^–1, and community production-to-respiration ratio was 1.49. One-third of annual primary production accumulated on the substrate as silt and sedimentation. Biocontents of four trophic levels in the pond were all of the same order of magnitude, averaging 50 kcal m^–2. Wind and water-borne organic material for primary consumers and terrestrial insects for tertiary consumers were substantial allochthonous energy imports into the pond system.     

Leaf litter species identity alters the structure of pond communities

The input of leaf litter resources is a major driver of ecosystem processes in terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Although variation exists in the quantity and composition of litter inputs due to natural and anthropogenic causes, few studies have examined how such variation influences the structure and composition of aquatic food webs. Using outdoor mesocosms, we examined the bottom–up effects of 10 chemically distinct tree litter species on microbial, algal, invertebrate and vertebrate fauna found in temperate ponds. We hypothesized that individual litter species, which differ in their traits, would differentially and predictably affect abiotic and biotic elements of pond communities. We further hypothesized that the presence of leaf litter, regardless of species, would elevate resource supply and increase the biomass of community members. Finally, we hypothesized that a mixture of litter species would have non‐additive effects on community responses. We followed the system for > 4 months and measured > 30 abiotic and biotic responses related to primary and secondary production. The different species of leaf litter had major effects on abiotic and biotic responses, including phytoplankton, periphyton, zooplankton, snails, amphipods and tadpoles. Most biological responses were negatively associated with soluble carbon content of litter, or litter decay rate. Other litter traits, including phenolic concentrations and litter C:N were of secondary importance but did exhibit both positive and negative associations with several responses. The absence of litter had pervasive effects on abiotic attributes, but did not promote substantial changes in organism biomass. Most responses to the litter mixture were additive. Our results suggest that changes in temperate forest composition can strongly affect pond communities.     

Population age structure and recent

Mid to late 20th century expansion of Dracophyllum scrub into tussock grassland on subantarctic Campbell Island has been attributed to the collective effects of global warming, cessation of farming in 1931, and continued grazing by feral sheep. To determine the importance of these, we dated the timing of scrub expansion by aging 241 Dracophyllum plants in 17 plots chosen to sample the range of environments this shrub/ small tree occupies on Campbell Island. Three plots, in lowland, well-drained, locations were dominated by large, old Dracophyllum that had established between 1846 and 1940. Virtually all shrubs in the remaining plots had established after 1940, with peaks in 1970 and 1985. The pattern of establishment does not coincide with any marked change in the temperature regime, although a prolonged period of relatively dry winters (c. 1970–1990) coincides with a late surge of regeneration on very wet sites. The removal of feral sheep from different parts of the island at different times is also unrelated to the pattern of establishment. In contrast, Dracophyllum spread follows farm abandonment in 1931 when regular burning ceased, suggesting that Dracophyllum is invading sites from which it was excluded by fire. However, the earliest reports from the mid 19th century indicate that tussock grassland was previously the dominant vegetation cover on the island, with limited Dracophyllum scrub. It is possible that the reduction of the dense tussock grasslands by fire and grazing in late 19th–early 20th century opened a regeneration window for Dracophyllum scrub to spread once burning ceased.